Every engineer must know the properties of the materials.
each
when we speak about the difference between the members
Let each of us think to himself.
much, many, a lot of áàãàòî
much
with uncountables
Much ado about nothing.
many
with countables
There are many faculties in the KPI.
a lot of
with uncountables and countables
little, few ìàëî, íåáàãàòî, äåê³ëüêà
little
with uncountables
I have a little time.
few
with countables (without article means ‘ìàëî’, with the indefinite article – ‘íåáàãàòî, äåê³ëüêà’)
A few books are on the table.
some, any, no and their derivatives -body, -one, -thing, -where
some
- affirmative sentences (with countables –‘äåê³ëüêà, äåÿê³’, with uncountables –‘íåáàãàòî, íåâåëèêà ê³ëüê³ñòü’)
- interrogative sentences (when offering something or asking for definite portion of smth)
- negative sentences (where ‘some’ is affirmative in the meaning)
He took some money and went to the cinema.Give me some books to read Would you like to have some tea?He never writes without making some mistakes.
any
- interrogative sentences and indirect questions(with countables has the meaning ‘ÿê³-íåáóäü’ with uncountables – ‘ñê³ëüêè-íåáóäü’)
- negative sentences (í³ÿêèé)
- affirmative sentences (with the meaning no matter who or which ‘áóäü-ÿêèé’)
Do you have any spare money?He asked me if I had any friends abroad.He didn’t ask me any questions. You may take any book you like.
no
negative forms of any
(no – çàëåæíà ôîðìà,
none – íåçàëåæíà ôîðìà)
consist of two halves: scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales, eye-glasses, tongs
end in –ing: earnings, doings, tidings, lodgings, beginnings, goings-on, etc.
goods, stairs, slums, wages, outskirts, contents, clothes, eaves
9.
only singular
information, news, business, advice, work, progress, fruit, hair, mathematics, etc.
10.
identical forms
· names of some animals: deer, sheep, swine
· some sorts of fish: fish, trout, cod, pike, salmon
· names indicating numbers(when they are preceded by a numeral): dozen, pair, couple, score;
· but: they went in pairs
· words: series, species
· pound (money) (followed a numerical indicating shillings) two pound ten (2.10)
· foot (measure of length) (followed a numerical indicating inches) five foot ten (5.10)
colours – 1) plural of tint, 2) flag;
customs – 1) plural of habit, 2) duties;
damages – compensation of injury;
quarters – lodgings.
13.
double plurals
brothers – sons of the mother
brethren – members of community
geniuses – men of genius
genii – spirits
pennies – number of coins
pence – amount of coins
clothes – articles of dress
cloths – kinds of cloth
indexes – tables of contents
indices – in mathematics
14.
countables become uncountables
We had duck for dinner.
The table is made of oak.
The tree was in blossom.
ADJECTIVE
DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
(Ñòóïåí³ ïîð³âíÿííÿ ïðèêìåòíèê³â òà ïðèñë³âíèê³â)
1.Formation of Degrees of Comparison
Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
adjective
adjective + er
the + adjective + est
(îäíî-ñêëàäîâ³)
long
big
small
longer
bigger
smaller
the longest
the biggest
the smallest
(äâî-ñêëàäîâ³)
easy
narrow
clever
simple
easier
narrower
cleverer
simpler
the easiest
the narrowest
the cleverest
the simplest
adjective
more + adjective
the most + adjective
(áàãàòî-ñêëàäîâ³)
beautiful
handsome
more beautiful
more handsome
the most beautiful
the most handsome
2.Irregular Comparison of Adjectives (and Adverbs)
Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
good
well
better (than)
the best
bad
badly
worse (than)
the worst
much
many
more (than)
the most
little
less (than)
the least
3.Adjectives which have two Forms of Comparison
Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
old
older
elder
the oldest
the eldest
late
later
latter
the latest
the last
near
nearer
the nearest
the next
far
farther
further
the farthest
the furthest
4.as ... as, (òàêèé … ÿê)
This room
is
as large as
that one.
These flowers
are
as beautiful as
mine.
5.not so ... as (íå òàêèé … ÿê)
Odessa
is
not so big as
Kyiv.
6. the more…, the better… ÷èì …, òèì …
The longer he studied, the more he liked his future speciality.
NUMERAL
cardinal
ordinal
cardinal
ordinal
cardinal
ordinal
one
first
eleven
eleventh
ten
tenth
two
second
twelve
twelfth
twenty
twentieth
three
third
thirteen
thirteenth
thirty
thirtieth
four
fourth
fourteen
fourteenth
forty
fortieth
five
fifth
fifteen
fifteenth
fifty
fiftieth
six
sixth
sixteen
sixteenth
sixty
sixtieth
seven
seventh
seventeen
seventeenth
seventy
seventieth
eight
eighth
eighteen
eighteenth
eighty
eightieth
nine
ninth
nineteen
nineteenth
ninety
ninetieth
hundred
two hundred_
but: hundreds of students
1,000
thousand
2,000
two thousand_
but: thousands of fighters
1,000,000
million
2000,000
two million_
but: millions of protesters
1,000,000,000
billion
three hundred and twenty five
five hundred and seven
225,000
two hundred and twenty five thousand
Fractional Numerals
(
1/2
a half
1/3
a third, one third
1/4
a quarter, one quarter; a fourth, one fourth
1/10
a tenth, one tenth
1/100
a (one) hundredth
3/4
three quarters, three fourths
1/1234
a (one) thousand two hundred and thirty fourth
o[ou], nought [no:t], zero [ziərou]
0.1
o point one, zero point one, point one, nought point one
0.01
o point o one, zero point zero one, point zero one
0.25
point two five, nought point two five,
2.35
two point three five
0.001
o point o o one, zero point zero zero one,
VERB
TENSES (
Simple
Present
V (Vs)
never, seldom, rarely, sometimes, often,
as a rule, usually, always, every day (week …)
I live in Kyiv.I go to the University every day.I speak English.The water boils at 100º C.If he comes he will help us.
Past
II (Ved)
yesterday,
the day before yesterday,
last year (month …),
two weeks ago, in 1998
when I was young
I lived in Kyiv two years ago.He went to school five days a weeklast year.She spoke English very well at the age of ten.I visited my friend yesterday.
Future
will +V
tomorrow,
the day after tomorrow,
next week (month …),
in a week, in 2030
I will live in Kyiv next three years.He will go to the University every daynext year.She will speak English very well in a month.I will visit my friend tomorrow.
Continuous
Present
am, is, are
+ V-ing
now,
right now,
at the moment
I am working on my graduation thesis, so I can’t go out with you.
Past
was, were
+ V-ing
at 3 o’clock yesterday,
from 5 till 7 yesterday,
the whole day yesterday,
when he came back (past)
I was working on my graduation thesis the whole day yesterday.
Future
will be
+ V-ing
at 3 o’clock tomorrow,
from 5 till 7 tomorrow,
the whole day tomorrow,
when he comes back (fut)
I will be working on my graduation thesis the whole day tomorrow.
Perfect
Present
have, has
+III (V-ed)
just, ever, never,
already, yet,
since, for,
this year,
recently, lately,
I have just seen him.Have you ever been abroad?I have never been abroad. Has he passed his exam yet? He has already passed his exam.
Past
had
+ III (V-ed)
before another action in the past
by 7 o’clock yesterday,
Before he came we had already finished with the testing.
As soon as I had passed my driving test I bought a car.
Future
will have
+ III (V-ed)
by 7 o’clock tomorrow,
by the end of the month,
by the time she comes
I will have done this by the end of the month.
Perfect Continuous
Present
have, has
+been V-ing
since, for
activity in progress which began in the past and is still continuing now
I have been working since nine o’clock this morning.He has been waiting for two hours.
Past
had
+ been V-ing
activity in progresstill the moment when smth happened in the past
We had been working for two hours when our friend joined us.
Future
will have
+ been V-ing
activity in progresstill the moment when smth happens in future
We will have been working in the laboratory for a few hours when you arrive.
PASSIVE VOICE
be + 3rd form of the verb
Simple
Present
am
is
are
+ III (V-ed)
never, seldom, rarely, sometimes, often,
as a rule, usually, always, every day (week …)
I am asked at every lesson.The text is usually translated in written form.
Past
was
were
+ III (V-ed)
yesterday,
the day before yesterday,
last year (month …),
two weeks ago,
when I was young
in 1998
I was invited to the party yesterday.The work was done last week.
Future
will be
+ III (V-ed)
tomorrow,
the day after tomorrow,
next week (month …),
in a week,
in 2008
I will be invited to the conference tomorrow.The letters will be sent in two days.
Continuous
Present
am
is +being
are
+III (V-ed)
now,
right now,
at the moment
He is being examined now.The letter is being typed at the moment.
Past
was
+being
were
+III (V-ed)
at 3 o’clock yesterday,
from 5 till 7 yesterday,
the whole day yesterday,
when he came back
The experiment was being carried on at this time yesterday.
Future
---
---
---
---
Perfect
Present
have
+been
has
+III (V-ed)
just,
ever, never,
already, yet,
since, for,
this year,
recently, lately,
1. I have just been examined.
2. These machines have never been produced at this plant.
3. A lot of new houses have been built recently.
Past
had +been
+III (V-ed)
before another action in the past
by 7 o’clock yesterday,
after
Before he came the work had already been finished.The specimen had been tested by 5 o’clock yesterday.
Future
will have +been
+III (V-ed)
by 7 o’clock tomorrow,
by the end of the month,
by the time she comes
The tests will have been done by the end of the month.
MODAL VERBS
Modal Verb
Examples
ability
can (could)
to be able to
I can speak English.
She could swim when she was 14.
She is (was/ will be) able to do it without our help.
permission
may (might)
to be allowed to
May I come in?
We might take any book we liked.
They are (were/ will be) allowed to use these tools.
obligation, duty
must
I must work hard to become a good specialist.
obligation from outside
to have to
Pupils have to wear a uniform.
advice, mild obligation
should
You should read this book.
advice, mild obligation
ought to
You ought to be more attentive.
obligation, compulsionasking for instruction
shall
You shall do it immediately.
Where shall I put these books? What shall I do?
to be to
He is to come at 5.
prohibition
must not íå ìîæíà
You must not smoke here.
necessity
need
must
have to
The TV needs repairing.
We must/have to leave now or we’ll miss the plane.
lack of necessity
needn’t
don’t need /don’t have to
You needn’t write down your translation, you may do it orally.
She doesn’t need/doesn’t have to work as her husband has a well-paid job.
criticism
could
might perfect
should infinitive
ought to
You could have done it. (But you didn’t do it.)
You might have phoned. (But you didn’t phone.)
You should have written the exercise. (But you didn’t write exercise.)
You ought to have warned her. (But you didn’t warn her.)
probability
can't íå ìîæëèâî
could
may ìîæëèâî
might
must íàïåâíî
He can’t be wrong. (I’m sure he is not wrong.)
He could/may/might be wrong. (Perhaps he is wrong.)
He must be wrong. (I’m sure he is wrong.)
Sequence of Tenses
îäíî÷àñíà ä³ÿ
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
He lives in Kyiv.
Past Simple
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect ContinuousHe said he lived in Kyiv.
ïîïåðåäíÿ ä³ÿ
Present Perfect
Past Simple
He saw this film yesterday.
Past PerfectHe said he had seen this film.
ïîäàëüøà ä³ÿ
Future
He will make a report.
Future in the PastHe promised he would make a report.
TYPES of SENTENCES
Compound sentences
and, but, both … and, neither … nor, however, yet, still, so,
English life is full of the traditions, and the English like traditions.
state
quality of
a person who/a thing which
the act of
a person who
condition of
action/state
activity
state, action
state, quality
pertaining to
condition/state
domain/condition
condition/state
The educated man of 200 years ago did not need to know anything about science. The educated man of 25 — 30 years ago did not need to know anything about computers. But the educated man of today needs to have some significant knowledge of science and a little significant knowledge about computers.
The computer is no doubt the most amazing achievement of mankind. It is a date storage system created by man. A human tells the machine what to do, when to do it and how it should be done.
The word computer comes from a Latin word which means to count.
In 1833 an English inventor and mathematician Charles Babbage, professor of Cambridge University designed the first computer. The mathematical programme for his machine had been composed by Lord Byron's daughter.
The first programmer computer which operated successfully was built in 1939 by H. H. Aiken, professor of Harward University.
In our country the first electronic digital computer MACM was constructed by the Ukrainian Academician S. O. Lebedev in 1950.
Such computers as BESM, Minsk, Ural, Razdan-3, M-20, M-220, Nairi-3, Strela, Dniepr were created in our country.
Nowadays computers greatly increase man's thinking capabilities of planning, analyzing, computing and con trolling. Hundreds of computers are already in daily use. They penetrate almost into all spheres of our modern society.
1.3 Answer the questions
- What does the educated man of today needs to know?
- Is computer the most amazing achievements of mankind?
- What does the word “computer” mean?
- Who designed the first computer?
- When was the first electronic digital computer constructed in Ukraine?
- Our life is impossible without modern inventions
- Computers have changed the way of our life
- Computer makes our life easier and more comfortable
- We can get all the information we need only through the computers
- Computers can do many things we do, but slower and worse. Everything should be in measure
1.6 Conversation
- Do you have a computer at home?(or Does your friend have)
- What company is you computer produced by?
- Who taught you to use a computer?
- Do you use computer when you do your homework?
- Have you ever studied English using your computer?
1.7 Fill in the gasps using the necessary words:
tubes
to create
tonnes
minute
university
electronics
event
machines
difficult
transistor
use
power
Early computers were very big and (1)________ to use and only a few people understood them. It weighed about 3 (2)______ and it was nearly 2 meters tall and 3 meters wide. Those (3)______ costed millions of dollars and only few big companies had them. It is still in the Seience Museum today.
The rapidly advancing field of (4)_______ led to construction of the first general - purpose electronic computer in 1946 at the (5)_______ of Pennsylvania. It was ENIAC, computers contained 18000 vacuum (6)______ and had a speed of several hundred multiplications per (7)______.
Later (8)_______ appeared. The (9)______ of the transistor in computers began In the late 1950s. It marked the (10)______ of smaller, faster elements than it was possible to (11)_______ with the use of vacuum - tube machines.
1.8 Dramatize the dialogue. And say what have you learned from it.
- Today I’ve learned very intresting information.
+ What is it?
- It is the science of museum.
+ Really? Where is it? I have never heard about it?
- It is in Great Britain. I saw it on TV.
+ And what is it famous for?
- The first computer invented by Charles Babbage in 1833 is still in the museum. It is Very big. It occupies the whole room. It was necessary to use a ladder in order to operate it. Do you know the size of the first computer?
+ I do not remember exactly but I know that it was hyge.
- Surely. It was 2 metres tall and 3 metres wide.
+ Oh, it is really intresting. Nothing in common with modern computer.
Exercise 11. Arrange the following words in alphabetic order.
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
He lives in Kyiv.
Present Perfect
Past Simple
He saw this film yesterday.
Future
He will make a report.