Efforts stepped up to tackle disease of ash trees

Most authorities believe that HER-2/neu, estrogen and progesterone receptor status are the most important to evaluate first

Laboratory tests for breast cancer can be broken down into groups, based on the purpose of testing:

To determine genetic risk in high risk women: blood testing for mutations that may be present in the BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 genes

To diagnose: cytology - a microscopic examination of tumor cells obtained through fine needle aspiration and surgical pathology - a microscopic examination of tissue sampling via biopsy

To determine treatment options: evaluation of the tumor's HER-2/neu gene amplification status and estrogen and progesterone receptor status

To monitor treatment and for recurrence: measurement of CA 15-3 or CA 27.29 in the blood

Some tests for breast cancer are performed on the woman's blood; others are done on a sample of cells or the tumor tissue.

Genetic risk:

BRCA-1 or BRCA-2 gene mutation – Women who are at high risk because of a personal or strong family history of early onset breast cancer or ovarian cancer can find out if they have a BRCA gene mutation. A mutation in either gene indicates that the person is at significantly higher lifetime risk (up to 80%) for developing the disease. It is important to remember, however, that only about 5% to 10% of breast cancer cases occur in women with a BRCA gene mutation. Genetic counseling should be considered both before testing takes place and after receiving positive test results.

Diangosis: cytology and surgical pathology

When a radiologist detects a suspicious area, such as hardened tissue (calcifications) or a non-palpable mass on a mammogram, or if a lump has been found during a clinical or self-exam (see Non-Laboratory Tests below), a doctor will frequently order a needle or surgical biopsy or a fine needle aspiration. In each case, a small sample of tissue is taken from the suspicious area of the breast so that a pathologist can examine the cells microscopically for signs of cancer. This pathological examination is done to determine whether the lesion is benign or malignant.

Malignant cells show changes or deviations from normal cells. Signs include changes in the size, shape, and appearance of cell nuclei and evidence of increased cell division. Malignant cells can also distory the normal arrangement of cells within breast tissue. Pathologists can diagnose cancer based upon the observed changes, determine how abnormal the cells appear, and see whether there is a single type of change or a mixture of changes. These results help guide breast cancer treatment.

Needle aspiration evaluations are limited due to the small sample that is obtained. A tissue biopsy is needed to determine if a cancer is early stage or invasive. When a breast cancer is surgically removed (see Treatment), cells from the tumor and sometimes from adjacent tissue and lymph nodes are examined by the pathologist to help determine how far the cancer has spread.

Treatment options:

If the pathologist's diagnosis is breast cancer, there are several tests that may be performed on the tissue cancer cells. The results of these tests provide a prognosis and help the oncologist (cancer specialist) guide the woman's treatment. The most useful of these are HER-2/neu and estrogen and progesterone receptors.

· Her-2/neu is an oncogene associated with cell growth. Normal epithelial cells contain two copies of the Her-2/neu gene and produce low levels of the Her-2 protein on the surface of their cells. In about 20-30% of invasive breast cancers, the Her-2/neu gene is amplified and its protein is over-expressed. These tumors are susceptible to treatment that specifically binds to this over-expressed protein. The chemotherapeutic agent Herceptin (Tastuzumab) blocks the protein receptors, inhibiting continued replication and tumor growth. Women with amplified Her-2/neu gene respond well to Herceptin and have a good prognosis.

· Estrogen and progesterone receptor (ER and PR) status are important prognostic markers. Breast cancer cells that have estrogen and/or progesterone receptors can bind estrogen and progesterone. These female hormones promote cell growth and can "feed" ER- and PR-positive cancers. The higher the percentage of cancer cells that are positive, as well as the greater the intensity (the number of receptors per cell), the better the prognosis. This is because hormone-dependant cancers frequently respond well to hormonal therapy.

Monitor treatment:

Blood tests may be used to help determine whether or not the tumor is responding to therapy or if it has recurred. Some may be ordered on women who are at a high risk of developing breast cancer to determine whether their risk has a genetic component.

CA15-3 (or CA 27.29) is a tumor marker that may be ordered at intervals after treatment to help monitor a person for breast cancer recurrence. It is not used as a screen for breast cancer but can be used to follow it in some women once it has been diagnosed.

Other tests:

There are several tests available, and many others being researched, that evaluate large numbers of genetic patterns in breast cancer tumor tissue. These tests are being investigated as predictive tests for the recurrence of breast cancer and therapy outcome. The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) mentioned several of them in its recent "2007 Update of Recommendations for the Use of Tumor Markers in Breast Cancer" and some have been included in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network’s 2011 Breast Cancer Treatment Guidelines. In most cases, the tests were deemed promising, but data to support their routine clinical use were still thought to be insufficient. Examples of tests being ordered by some doctors include:

Oncotype DX – ASCO indicates that this test, which measures 21 genes, can be used to predict risk of cancer recurrence in those who have been newly diagnosed with early breast cancer, have cancer-negative lymph nodes, have estrogen receptor positive tumors, and are taking the drug tamoxifen.

MammaPrint test – in use in Europe and recently cleared by the FDA for use in the U.S. This test evaluates gene activity patterns in 70 tumor genes. It may be used to help predict whether a breast cancer will recur and/or metastasize in women who have early stage cancer, are under the age of 61, and have cancer-negative lymph nodes.

There are additional tests that may be used in some breast cancer cases, such as DNA ploidy, Ki-67, or other proliferation markers. However, most authorities believe that HER-2/neu, estrogen and progesterone receptor status are the most important to evaluate first. The other tests do not have therapeutic implications and, when compared with grade and stage of the disease, are not independently significant with respect to prognosis. Some medical centers use these tests for additional information in evaluating patients, making it important to discuss the value of these tests with your cancer management team.

RESEARCH

Diagnostic methods of breast diseases

The 5^th course student

Julia Kochergina

Efforts stepped up to tackle disease of ash trees

Plant health authorities across the United Kingdom have stepped up their efforts to tackle a new disease of ash trees.

Work to combat Chalara dieback of ash has been under way for some months. The Forestry Commission and the Food & Environment Research Agency (Fera) are now following up cases confirmed in trees in East Anglia which do not appear to be associated with recent plantings of nursery-supplied plants.

The UK Government is also preparing to impose restrictions on imports and movements of ash plants and seeds into and within Great Britain. These could come into force as early as next week. Meanwhile the Horticultural Trade Association has also encouraged its members to voluntarily stop importing ash plants until the disease situation has been clarified.

Chalara dieback of ash, caused by the fungus Chalara fraxinea, was found in the UK for the first time earlier this year in young ash plants in nurseries and recently planted sites including a car park, a college campus, and a recently planted new woodland. Dr John Morgan, Head of the Forestry Commission’s Plant Health Service, said,

“We and our colleagues in the Fera, the Scottish Government and the Northern Ireland Forest Service have stepped up our efforts to tackle this disease as a priority. This includes redeploying Forestry Commission staff from their usual duties to survey woods and forests in East Anglia and throughout Great Britain.”

The cases of Chalara dieback outside recent planting sites in East Anglia were confirmed by Fera scientists, and Dr Morgan said,

“Scientists from our own Forest Research agency are also carrying out diagnostic tests on a number of other samples from established woodland trees in East Anglia with symptoms indicative of this disease, and we expect the results within a few days.

“It is still early days and investigations are continuing, but there is a possibility that the East Anglia outbreak is an isolated one which has been present for some time. This emphasises the importance of preventing spread further afield.

“Although forest managers and tree professionals are well aware of what to look for, we are getting very few reports of problems with ash trees. However, we would repeat our advice to use the information on our website, inspect their trees again, and report any suspect trees.

“The Commission already has a wealth of information about the distribution and health of Britain’s trees, and we will be doing more to visit woods with ash trees to assess their condition. As part of prioritising this disease, we will shortly be releasing interim results on tree health from the National Forest Inventory to help provide a picture of the overall health of ash trees across Britain.

“As we gather more evidence from surveys we will be able to develop our long-term strategy for dealing with this disease.”

As a precaution until the situation becomes clearer, the Commission is suspending the planting of ash trees in the public forests it manages, and Dr Morgan added,

“Until we know the full situation, this is a sensible precaution to take against the possibility that young plants might pick up infection after they have been planted.”

Meanwhile, the deadline for submission of comments in a government consultation on a Pest Risk Analysis for C. fraxinea falls this Friday, 26 October, and Dr Morgan said,

“I encourage anyone who has not yet done so to study the analysis and submit their comments. I can give an assurance that all comments received will be considered in any policy decisions taken.”

If most of the comments received endorse the approach, the UK Government is expected to quickly pass legislation temporarily restricting imports and movements of ash plants into and within Great Britain to minimise the risk of further accidental introductions of the disease into areas which are currently disease-free.

Further information, including a pictorial guide to symptoms, is available at www.forestry.gov.uk/chalara.

NOTES:

The Chalara fraxinea fungus has the potential to kill millions of ash trees if it becomes widely established in Great Britain. It has previously only been confirmed in nurseries and on young trees which had been planted out within the past five years in England and Scotland. Most of the affected plants had been imported from continental Europe, and are being destroyed to prevent them spreading the disease.

Chalara dieback of ash trees was confirmed for the first time in Great Britain in 2012. Ash trees were first recorded dying in large numbers from what is now believed to be this newly identified form of ash dieback in Poland in 1992, and it spread rapidly to other European countries. However, it was 2006 before the fungus’s asexual stage, C. fraxinea, was first “described” by scientists, and 2010 before its sexual stage, Hymenoscyphus pseudo-albidus, was described.

The Northern Ireland Executive has announced plans to legislate to restrict ash plant imports and movements, although there have been no confirmed sites in Northern Ireland to date.

It was first confirmed in the Republic of Ireland in October 2012, and the Irish Government has also announced its intention to legislate.

The consultation on the Pest Risk Assessment can be found at http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/consultations/index.cfm .Suspected cases can be reported to any of the following:

C. fraxinea is not a “regulated” plant disease in European Union plant health law, which means that ash plants moved between Member States are not subject to inspection. However, EU legislation allows Member States to take national measures to prevent the entry and spread of pests and diseases not found on their territory, and this is what the UK Government is proposing to do for Great Britain as early as possible after the Pest Risk Analysis consultation has concluded.

Date: 2014-12-21; view: 932