Factors Permitting the Speakerto Choose FromTwo or More Tenses

These factors are also three: economy of speech efforts, direction of speech intentionality, and stylistic considerations.

Economy of Speech Efforts

In accordance with this factor a meaning (S) for which a special language form (Ф_s) exists can be rendered in speech by another form (F_S0)

which, by itself, does not possess this meaning and is simpler in structure), in case the meaning is adequately pointed out by contextual signals (C_s):

Ф_s = F_S0 + C_s

The factor of economy of speech efforts is illustrated below by examples of some of the most typical cases in which it is involved.

Static Tenses to refer to terminative verbal processes represented as developing in time:

1. "I must go and get a job. Yes, I must. We get poorer and poorer" (A. Coppard); 2. The barking came nearer and nearer (W. S. Gray);

3. The older she got, the tougher she grew (A. Cronin); 4. The standard
of correct English has changed slowly but steadily since the opening
of the twentieth century (Sh. Cody); 5. "No, no" cried Sophy, "I have
never been good since he went. I have got worse and worse" (Miss Yonge);

6. The operation, too long deferred, was now inevitable. His disease
had grown steadily worse (Th. Wolfe).

Past Absolute Tenses to refer to beforepast verbal processes: 1. Carrie came in after he did (Th. Dreiser); 2. His room smelled of soot and the paper of fried potatoes she brought in for supper the night before (K- Mansfield); 3. Carrie was gone. A couple of evening papers were lying where she left them (Th. Dreiser); 4. Michael glanced side­ways at the colonel. But the colonel, in the front seat of the jeep, was reading a paper-covered mystery story he had picked up in England while they were waiting to cross the Channel (I. Shaw).

Past Absolute Tenses to refer to beforepresent verbal processes: 1. "Thank you, Mr. Cruger," she said. "I — I can't tell you how I've enjoyed it all the time I was here" (D. Parker); 2. "There have been eccentric inventors, starving their families while they sought such chi­meras as perpetual motion» (J. London); 3. "You're been bad to me, and what hurts most is that you were telling lies all the time" (J. Braine);

4. "Vie drawn in school when Master Urbino was not looking" (I. Stone).
Past Static in contexts with ever, never, always, before to refer to

beforepresent verbal processes:

1. "Were you ever on the stage?" — "No," said Carrie (Th. Dreiser); 2. "Did you ever read the 'Black Pig'?" asked the lieutenant. "I will get you a copy" (E. Hemingway); 3. "I never saw the inside of a tank", Reggie said (J. Braine); 4. "Can you drive?" — "I never tried" (Th. Dreiser);

5. "Take me to the carnations now. I always liked carnations (A. Cro-
nin); 6. "I know that," he said, "I always knew it" (J. Galsworthy);

7. "Roger," he exclaimed, "she's made a man of me. I was a machine
before" (F. Norris); 8. "No, darling. We'll manage somehow. We starved
before; we can starve again" (W. S. Maugham).

In these examples ever, never, always, before, together with other contextual signals, point to periods of time anterior to some situation in the present. This permits the speaker to use the Past Static, which is simpler in structure and points, as the Beforepres­ent does, to periods of time lying to the left from the moment of speak­ing. The meaning of concrete associations with particular circumstances

in the past characteristic of the Past Static becomes In these cases neutralized.

Statistic counts show that with ever and never the Past Static is about 1.5 times more frequent than the Beforepresent. With always and before the ratio is just the opposite.

Direction of Speech Intentionality

This factor explains the use of present and beforepresent tenses with adverbial modifiers of time which seem, at the first glance, to be in­compatible with them.

For instance, the example "I know you for ten years now already' (Th. Dreiser) contains three adverbials, each of which, as it is commonly stated, requires a beforepresent tense. Nevertheless, the Present Static is used in it, which can be explained as follows. In the beginning of the act of speaking the intention of the speaker was to convey a message verbalized by "I know you". Here the meaning of the Present Static and the content of the message agree. While uttering these words, how­ever, the speaker changes his intention, making the time relation of the process denoted by the verb «to know» more specific. This he reveals in the process of further verbalization of the change of his intention by adding "for ten years," "now", and "already", which signifies, a shift of the time relation from

—x— to —x—. The form of the verb origi­nally uttered becomes thus incompatible with the signals added. The speaker, however, does not necessarily have to declare the utterance "I know you" as irrelevant to his changed intention by saying, for ins­tance, "Oh, no. I didn't mean that. What I meant was: 'I have known you for ten years now already'". He can achieve an identical effect by adjusting his intonation pattern accordingly, for example, as "I know you. For ten years now already."

This is what actually happens when sentences like the two following are uttered:

"How do you like your job — so far?" (W. Smitter); "You have known Ted Kerby for many years. He has visited at your house as far back... as 1937" (D. Carter).

More examples of identical uses of the present (a) and beforepresent (b) tenses:

(a)1. "You know I do my hair myself ever since I had that urchin cut" (J. Lindsay); 2. "I've your name in my list these two years, Flinn" (E. Cluer); 3. She owes money for six weeks now" (Th. Wolfe); 4. "She's drinking a little too much lately" (O'Henry); 5. "The whole house is stinking with naphthaline ever since Mamsel Agatha came" (A. Munthe); 6. "He's waiting at home all this time for his tea" (J. Lindsay);

(b)1. Unless my memory plays me a trick, his portrait at various ages has already appeared in the 'Strand Magazine' — I think late in 1899 (H. Wells); 2. "I've only had word of the thing an hour ago" (A. Cro-nin); 3. Indeed, I have seen Blanch, six or seven years since, when she was a girl of eighteen (Ch. Bronte); 4. "He's been having grub with you in the Malabar Bar last night — so I was told" (J. Conrad).

Stylistic Considerations

The speaker of English has at his disposal a rich inventory of tenses serving to represent verbal processes in different temporal and aspectual relationships. Since it is frequently possible, in a certain situation, to represent a verbal process in two or more ways (Cf., e. g.: He picked up the rifle, which was lying against two round stones — I. Shaw; He took up the book, which still lay where he had placed it beside him — J. Galsworthy; He threw over a sheet of paper which had been lying open upon the table — C. Doyle), the speaker may choose the form at his will to suit his stylistic preference. A few examples will illustrate this:

1. We sat in the cafe in which I had sat with her. A strong mistral was blowing and the harbour usually so smooth, was flecked with white foam. The fishing boats were gently rocking. The sun shone brightly (W. S. Maugham); 2. The streets were already thronged. Dogs raced between their legs, pigs were rooting for garbage in the gutter. Children followed them, jeering and shouting. Beggers wailed with importunate palms (A. Cronin); 3. It was hard to believe now, that there had been a time when he didn't know Roger, a time when he had wandered the city streets without saying a word to anyone, a time when no man was his friend, no woman had looked at him, no street was home (I. Shaw).

THE USE OF ABSOLUTE STATIC TENSES

The absolute static tenses are used to denote verbal processes re­ferred to the speaker's mental time and represented as relatively static.

THE PRESENT STATIC

The Present Static is the most frequently used tense in technical literature (90%) and second in frequency in fiction (26%). It is used when the speaker refers a verbal process to his mental present and re­presents it as relatively static. Objectively, a process denoted by a verb in the Present Static may belong to present, past, or future time, refer­ences to objective present making about 92% of all its uses.

Processes Objectively Belonging to Present Time

The length of processes denoted by verbs in the Present Static and belonging objectively to present time can be from several instants to infinite:

1. "He'll get fifteen or twenty years, maybe even twenty-five." — "You're off your rocker. I say ten" (A. Maltz); 2. The watch shows three minutes to ten (A. Cronin); 3. "Why do you sit there and question me?" (Th. Dreiser); 4. He opened his eyes in the soft dawn light and looked at his wife. She sleeps, he thought (I. Shaw); 5. His watch ticks. The stars wheel overhead (J. Sommerfield); 6. "They say it is Alaric the Goth. They say he marches on Rome" (S. V. Benet); 7. "She will never leave the bed she now lies on" (A. Cronin); 8. "Michelangelo, you look so thin."— "The sculpture grows fat, I grow thin" (I. Stone); 9. "I dunno how you get along without a telly (a TVset)" (J. Lindsay); 10. "She owns the place. I just look after it for her" (E. Hemingway); 11. At one extremity stands the mansion, at the other is the high road (Ch. Dickens); 12.Every­thing changes into everything (J. Burnot).

Present-time processes referred to in speech are mostly concrete actions and states progressing at the moment of speaking. More seldom, reference is to be made to processes characteristic of the subject (its habitual actions and states, abilities and other features, various rela­tionships). Processes of the former kind are commonly represented in* speech as dynamic (reproduction of actions and states progressing in time), those of the latter kind as static. The two ways of representation of processes agree with the aspectual meaning of the Present Dynamic and the Present Static, respectively.

The Use of the Present Static to Refer to Abstract Present-time Pro­cesses Represented as Relatively Static Features and Relationships. As opposed to concrete processes, an abstract process is an action or state having no definite location on the time line. Abstract processes can be continuous or repeated, of finite or infinite length, non-actual or actual at the moment of speaking. Compare:

1. To the north rises the old crater (H. G. Wells) // When oils are poured into water they rise to the top (H. McKay) (A continuous and a repeated process); 2. The observatory stands on the spur of the moun­tain (H. G. Wells) // High above Sierra's peaks stands grim Mount Tallac (E. Seton-Thompson) (Processes of finite and infinite length); 3. "She dances abominably, I believe" (E. Delafield) // "You dance all right, Tony" (J. Galsworthy) (Processes not going on and going on at the moment of speaking).

References to abstract processes make about 60% of the total use of the Present Static with verbs except "to be" and about 35% with verbs including "to be", the difference being explained by the fact that the verb "to be" which is very frequent with the tense often refers to features and relationships actual at the moment of speaking, for example:

Alison. I'm sorry — I really am (J. Osborne); Alison. Where is he? — Cliff. In my room (J. Osborne).

Some more of the typical examples of the use of the Present Static to refer to abstract processes[48]:

1. "Julia, I worship you, I adore you, I love you" (M. Arlen); 2. "No, I don't believe in God" (D. Cusack); 3. "My position here is a wretched one. I now belong to neither class" (G. Gordon); 4. "I never drink" (Th. Dreiser); 5. Oil shines and feels very smooth (H. McKay); 6. "No, no lilac. I hate lilac" (K. Mansfield); 7. "Don't you like him?" — "I neither like him nor dislike him. He doesn't very much interest me" (W. S. Maugham); 8. "London means nothing to me any more" (W. S. Maugham); 9. "Giftedgirl! Paints,draws,carves on wood, plays,sings,acts" (Th. Dreiser); 10. "I guess It doesn't rain so much here!" (H. James); 11. One picket sign reads: "What is democracy?" (D. Worker); 12. The river runs rapidly north to the sea (D. H. Lawrence); 13. "He sells baloons in the street now" (J. Galsworthy); 14. "But, anyway, he speaks Eng­lish" (Th. Dreiser); 15. Margarine looks and tastes like butter and is much cheaper (H. McKay); 16. "You think an awful lot of that girl, don't you?" (F. Meier); 17. "What do you think she weighs?" (R.Macaulay); 18. "I'm sure she writes" (D. Parker).

The Use of the Present Static to Refer to Concrete Processes Actual at the Moment of Speaking. In about 65% of its uses the Present Static refers to concrete processes actual at the moment of speaking. Such uses are common in colloquial speech, in comments to demonstrations and sports games, in author's speech, and stage directions, all of which were dealt with on pages 22—26. Additional attention needs to be given to colloquial speech.

The Present Static, when used in colloquial speech, refers either to processes which can hardly be said to be developing at the moment of speaking or to those which are actually in the stage of progression.

The Present Static with verbal processes of the former kind was illustrated and explained on page 24. Below is a list of such verbs used in the sources analysed:

accuse, accept, admit, advise, affirm, agree, allude, alter, amaze, anticipate, apologize, appeal, applaud, appreciate, approve, arrive, ask, assume, assure, award, beg, begin, believe, bet, bewilder, blame, bow, call, claim, come, commend, concede, confess, congratulate, date, declare, defy, disagree, dismiss, doubt, end, entreat, envy, evade, expect, fancy, fear, figure, fill, find, flatter, forbid, forget, forgive, frighten, gather, give, give+up, gratify, guarantee, guess, hurt, imagine, insist, implore, judge, leave, maintain, make, object, offer, own, pain, pass, pledge, pray, prefer, presume, profess, promise, propose, protest, raise, read, realize, recognize, reckon, recall, recollect, refuse, regret, rejoice, remain, remember, remind, repeat, reply, request, reserve, retract, say, salute, settle, strike, submit, suggest, suit, suppose, sur­prize, swear, sympathise, take, tell, think, throw, trust (suppose), turn, understand, vote, vouch, warn, wonder, yield (126 verbs).

Typical verbs of the other group found in the sources: ache, act, address, attract, await, burn, clean, come, cry, do, draw, drizzle, eat, examine, fall, fight, flow, fly, follow, frown, gain, gape, get (become), glitter, go, grow (become), hang, hide, hurt, jog, lie (deceive), lie (re­cline), listen, look, march, move, pain, pass, question, rage, rain, read, regard (look at), ride, ring, rise, run, say, scorch, scratch, shake, sit, sleep, smile, smell, snow, speak, stand, stare, steam, stay, stink, suffer, talk, tell, think, throb, tick, torture, tremble, twingle, twirl, try, turn, wait, walk, wheel, work, write (79 verbs).

Examples below illustrate the use of the Present Static with some of these verbs:

1. "And, God!" he added tearfully. "My heart sore aches!" (Th. White); 2. "Bruce! Dearest! What is it? Aren't you glad? Why do you act so strangely?" (Th. Wolfe); 3. It was the sound of a gramophone, harsh and loud, wheezing out a syncopated tune... "One of the second-class passengers has a room in the house. I guess it comes from there" (W. S. Maugham); 4. "You want to go back to the States. You want your good time, and, like a child, you-cry for it now" (J. London); 5. "But see, now that the light falls on the root, what curious shining earth it grows in "(Ch. Dickens); 6. A suburban was sitting at his window one evening when he casually called to his wife: "There goes that woman Bill Jones is so terribly in love with." His wife craned her neck to look out the window (F. Meier); 7. "Eat your cereal, Peter," she said.— "I can't. My stomach hurts» (J. Updike); 8. "Now," said he, "just hand me my whip; it lies there under the hedge (Ch. Bronte); 9. "I speak tonight to one who is not here. I speak to one who sat there yesterday, alone" (D. Carter); 10. "What is your reason for saying so?" — "I read it in your eyes" (Ch. Bronte); 11. "I can't hear a word you say" (F. Meier); 12 "But it was Squire Hawker who sat where you sit, and it was you who stood where I stand* (G. Chesterton); 13. "I speak as my thoughts run" (G. Mer­edith); 14. The farmer looked at the moon and said, «Lordl She stares at us!" (G. Meredith); 15. She smelled another whisky-whiff as he leaned closer. "Don't know why I talk to you the way I do, but you caught my fancy" (J. Lindsay); 16. "I'm not at all surprized at what you tell me" (E. James); 17. "You stand there in your cheap American clothes and you think 'What has he to do with me?'" (I. Shaw); 18. "Why, son— what on earth! You walk as if you were lame" (Th. Wolfe); 19. "My dear Miss Cherrel,— I write to tell you that we have succeeded in coming to an arrangement" (J. Galsworthy); 20. "Breathe deeply." — "I am. Oh, it doesn't work any more. It doesn't work" (E. Hemingway) (Oxy­gen does not help any more the dying woman).

The Present Staticto Referto Inclusive Verbal Processes Anteriorto the Momentof Speaking. In about 2% of all its uses the Present Static refers to processes which, though they include the moment of speaking, are located to the left from it. The typical patterns are:

"It's three weeks since I saw you" (D. Cusack); "I am not sorry to this day" (H. Wells); Present Static + forsix weeks, since, from the start, lately,so far, and so on.

It is... since. By saying "It is three weeks since I saw you" the speaker actually says: "The period of time since I saw you Is three weeks," em­phasis being made on the length of the anterior period of time in the present. The Beforepresent Static, which is about four times less fre­quent in such cases, lays stress on the existence of a certain relationship in the period of time indicated. For example, "It's been a long time since I was so near to the old home" (J. London) approximately means: "For a long time I haven't been so near to the old home". Some more examples of the Present Static in this pattern:

1. "Well, it's years since we first met" (W. S. Maugham); 2. "It's a long time since I was there" (J. Galsworthy); 3. "How long is it since we parted?" (Miss Yonge); 4. "It does seem long since I had measles" (J. Galsworthy).

To This Day: 1. "I believe the natives talk of that war to this day" (J. Conrad); 2. He sobbed with such vehemence that I believe him to this day, to have greatly influenced the verdict (Ch. Dickens); 3. "To this day I know nothing but the names of such things as History, Ge­ography, Figures" (W. A. Heaven); 4. "To this day I'm not certain what went wrong there" (G. Greene).

For six weeks. Since. From the Start. Lately. So Far, etc.: 1. "I don't see her for a long time" (G. Gordon); 2. "I don't see well. You would think I would wear glasses, but no. I walk around for years now, hiding them, seeing nothing" (R. Bradbury); 3. "His hair is distinctly greyer since this began" (J. Galsworthy); 4. "Since the baby learned to stand, I never know what he'll be up to next" (D. Russell); 5. We're together from the start" (A. Cronin); 6. "He's much better tempered lately" (G. Gordon); 7. "What's the matter with you of late?" (Th. Drei­ser); 8. "Are you with me so far?" (A. Kingsley); 9. "We have no reason so far to complain of the results (J. Galsworthy).

Date: 2015-12-11; view: 563