Home Random Page


CATEGORIES:

BiologyChemistryConstructionCultureEcologyEconomyElectronicsFinanceGeographyHistoryInformaticsLawMathematicsMechanicsMedicineOtherPedagogyPhilosophyPhysicsPolicyPsychologySociologySportTourism






IV. Prepositional absolute constructions with non-verbals.

1. The prepositional absolute construction with the adjective (She hurriedly left the room with her eyes red - ...and her eyes were red)

2. The prepositional absolute construction with the stative (He stood there trembling, with his face ablaze - ...and his face was ablaze)

3. The prepositional absolute construction with the adverb (He turned away, with his hand still up - ...and his hand was still up)

4. The prepositional absolute construction with a noun (They marched towards the square, with little flags in their hands - ...and there were little flags in their hands)

 

¹ 37 Complex sentences with nominal clauses.

All nominal clauses have a function similar to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical. Because of the close relationships between the clauses the complex sentence is pronounced as a whole on, and the subordinate clause is not separated by a comma.

1. A subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own. It can be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, because, the way, whether … or), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).

May be of two patterns:

Þ When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause: What caused the accident was a mystery.

Þ When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal introductory it: It makes me sick the way she’s always complaining.

2. A predicative / complement clause functions as predicative/subject complement to the link/copular verb within the main clause. It may be introduced by conjunctions (that, whether, whether …or, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why.) NOTE: that the predicative clause introduced by the conjunctions as, as if, as though shouldn’t be confused with adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the same conjunctions. A predicative clause immediately follows the link/copular verb (be, feel, look, seem, appear, sound, taste etc.) which doesn’t express complete predication without the clause.

I couldn’t move my legs. It was as if they were stuck to the floor. (predicative clause)

He shook his head as if he wanted to say ‘don’t trust me’. (adverbial clause)

Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:

Þ They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning (thing, question, problem, news, rule, trouble). In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject. The first thing is that you should talk to your teacher.



Þ The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation either directly or by means of comparison. It appears that I was wrong.

NOTE: that this type o sentence shouldn’t be confused with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begin with it. In the later case the predicate of the main clause is complete, and it can be replaced by the subject clause.

It seems that they have no experience in this work. (predicative clause)

3. An object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns. It may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, whether..or, lest), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why.) He left wondering what had really happened.

Like objects in a simple sentence, object clauses may vary in their relation to the principle clause and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on.

· An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to. In this case it’s parallel in function to a direct object. I know what I’m doing.

A typical type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying. She asked him if he would lend her his car.

After the more common reporting verbs, that can be left out. I suggested (that) we should go home.

After more formal and less common verbs, that cannot be left out. The manager objected that it was impossible.

Like subject clauses, object clauses may be preceded by formal it, usually after the verbs to feel, to consider, to find, to take, to like. I don’t like it when she tells me how to do things.

An object clause may refer to formal it followed by the object complement after the verbs to think, to find, to make, to consider. I think it important that we should keep calm.

· There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb. She knew a lot of people who lived what might have been thought very lonely lives.

· An object clause may be joined to the main clause by the prepositions about, after, before, beyond, except, for, of etc. in this case it’s parallel in function to a prepositional object. The amount you pay depends on where you live.

Some prepositions which would be necessary before nouns or gerunds used as objects are not used before object clauses. He insisted that he was innocent. He insisted on his innocence.

4. An appositive clause refers to a noun either with a very general meaning or requiring additional information. To these nouns belong thing, reason, point, moral, comment, remark, idea, fact, feature etc. the clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if, as though), conjunctive pronouns , conjunctive adverbs (how, why.) it’s not separated by a comma and cannot be joined asyndetically.

The reason why she didn’t get the job was that her English was not very good.

 

¹ 38 Complex sentences with adverbial clauses

Adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning, that is according to the relation they bear to the main clause. They differ from nominal and attributive clauses in that they are introduced by conjunctions with more distinctive meaning.

Commas are often used after adverbial clauses when they precede the main clause. When they come after the main clause, it is more usual not to have a comma.

According to their semantics we distinguish adverbial clauses ofplace, time, manner, comparison, condition, concession, purpose, cause, result.

1. An adverbial clause of place defines the place or the direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions where, whence, wherever, everywhere (that) and conjunctive adverbs with prepositions. He said he was happy where he was.NOTE: that not only an adverbial clause of place begins with where.

He left it where it lay. (adverbial clause) I told him where to put it. (object clause)

He came from Herne Bay, where Lally had once spent a holiday, (relative clause)

This is where my brother lives, (predicative clause)

2. An adverbial clause of time characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view.

An adverbial clause of time may be introduced by conjunctions: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since and phrasal conjunctions:

the time (that), the day (that), the moment, the instant, next time, every (each) time, directly, immediately, instantly, once.

Every conjunction in the above list imparts a particular shade of meaning to the temporal relation — priority, simultaneity, succession of actions, the beginning or the end of the action, repetition, gradual development of a process, etc.

He saw her as he was getting of f the bus. (as = while, when)

As I get older I get more optimistic, (about two developing or changing situations)

He got married as soon as he left university, (as soon as at once, after)

They arrivedwhile we were having dinner, (while introduces the longer background situation, which started before the shorter event)

Now (that) John has arrived, we can begin. ( now that ==because smth has happened) ' I'll keep it for you till you come back. (till, until mark the end point of a period of time)

I found your coat after you had left the house, (after == at a later time than when)

It will be some timebefore we know the final results, (before = earlier than the time when)

We've been friends(ever) since we met at school, (since gives the starting point of actions and situations that continue up to the moment of speaking; the verb in the principal clause is used in the present perfect or past perfect)NOTE: the present indefinite tense in expressions like

It's a long time since I heard from Peter. It's ten years since Arabella left me.

By the time you receive this letter I will be on my way home.

I recognized her the moment I saw her. (the moment as soon as)

At) the instant I saw him I knew he was the man the police were looking for. ((at) the instant == as soon as)

I came directly I got your message, (directly === as soon as)

Once she arrives, we can start, (once == from the moment that; when)

3. An adverbial clause of manner characterizes actions, states, qualities, circumstances. The most common conjunctions to introduce them are as and the way, in a wan, in the way.

I don't understand why he behavesas he does.

I was never allowed to do thingsthe way I wanted to do them.

4. An adverbial clause of comparison characterizes the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstance or action.

Clauses of comparison may be introduced by the conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than, the correlative conjunctions as...as, so...as, as-as if.

She's got longer hairthan I have.

In a formal written style, as is sometimes followed by inversion. He was a Catholic, as were most of his friends.

The difference between the use of as and like is important.

Like is a preposition — it is followed by a noun or a pronoun. My sister isn't much like me. As is a conjunction — it is followed by clause. I am no orator,as Brutus is.

As is also used before prepositional expressions: In 1939,as in 1914, there was a great surge of patriotic feeling.

In informal American English, like is very often used as a conjunction instead of as.

Nobody loves youlike I do, baby.

Another use of as is in expressions like as you know, as we agreed, as you suggested. The meaning here is not really 'comparison', but identity. In an informal style, like is possible in some of these expressions, but it is unusual in educated English.

When we say that two things are the same in some way, we can use as...as with an adjective or adverb.

He droveas fastas he could.

Expressions with as...as can also be modified by (not) nearly, almost, just, nothing like, every bit, exactly.You'renothing like as criticalas you used to be.

As if and as though are used in the same way: they often show that a comparison is 'unreal’.

Why is she looking at meas though she knew me? I’ve never seen her before in my life.

Was is also possible and is more common in an informal style

5. An adverbial clause of condition contains some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible. Adverbial clauses of condition may be introduced by conjunctions: if, unless, once, in case. There are also several conjunctions derived from verbal forms sometimes followed by the optional that: provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), considering (that), given (that), granted (that), granting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that).If he told you that, he was lying.

Provided (that) there is no opposition, we shall hold the meeting here.

He did very well in his examsconsidering (that) he had studied so little.

Conditional clauses introduced by if imply uncertainty. Therefore they often contain non-assertive forms of pronouns and pronominal adverbs, such as any, anybody, anything, anywhere. Just ask Johnif you needany help. Clauses beginning with unless express the only possible condition which will make the action in the main clause possible.

Therefore they usually contain assertive forms like something, somebody.

Unless somebody interferes, there may be a disaster.

For the same reason unless-clauses hardly ever express unreal conditions.

In formal or literary English conditional clauses may be joined to the main clause asyndetically by means of inversion. Inversion is possible only if the predicate in the subordinate clause is in the Suppositional Mood or Subjunctive II.

Should ministers decide to instigate an inquiry, we would welcome it.

Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions. Had I known that there was never to be another opportunity, I would have filmed the occasion.

It is a common elementary mistake to use will or would together with if. However, there are three cases in which will and would are possible in if-clauses.

1) Will and would are used in if-clauses not as auxiliary verbs to make the future and conditional, but as modal verbs to talk about wishing or willingness.

If youwill come this way, the manager will see you now.

2) In indirect speech, in object clauses, (when if has more or less the same meaning as whether), it can be followed by will or would. I'd like to knowif hewill be using the car tomorrow.

3) When the if-clause refers to a result of the action of the main clause, will can be used. (Normally the if-clause refers to a condition that comes before.)

If yougive me ten pounds (first), I'll stop smoking.

If itwill make you happy (as a result), I’ll stop smoking.

6. An adverbial clause of concession contrasts with the content of the main clause: the action or fact described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action or state expressed in the subordinate clause.

This type of clause is introduced by conjunctions: although, though, if; conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever (which may stand for almost any part of the sentence), as; or composite conjunctions: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact, despite the fact, except that, much as, even if, even though, even when.

When a concessive clause ends with a subject complement, the complement can be brought forward to the beginning of the clause. When the complement is an adjective, as can be used instead of though.

I had to accept the fact, improbable though/as it was.

Astute businessman though he was, Philip was capable at times of extreme recklessness. (Note the absence of the article before the noun businessman.)

An adverb can also be put at the beginning of the clause.

Some members of the staff couldn't handle Murray's condition, hard though they tried.

When you are talking about a strong feeling or desire, you can use much as instead of though.

Much as I like Venice, I couldn't live there.

Concessive clauses of this kind sound rather formal.

7. An adverbial clause of purpose expresses the purpose of the action which is stated in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, so, lest, in order that, for fear that. Modal verbs or verbs in the Suppositional Mood are used in clauses of purpose because they express planned but not real actions.

Bring it closer so (that) Ican see it better.

He said it in order that wemight live more comfortable. (formal)

 

In formal or old-fashioned English lest is sometimes used at the beginning of a purpose clause to say what an action is intended to prevent. The verb-predicate is then used in the Suppositional Mood or Subjunctive I.

He spoke in whisperslest the servants(should) hear him. Lest anyone(should) worry that this will lead to price increases, let me reassure them that it will not.

8. An adverbial clause of cause expresses the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole. Causative clauses may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering', or by the composite conjunctions for the reason that, in view of the fact that, inasmuch as, insofar as.

As she has no car, she can't get there easily.

Their father is also guilty, inasmuch as he knew what they were planning to do. (formal)

There are some differences between as, because and since.

Because is generally used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence. Therefore, the because-clause usually comes at the end.

People dislike mebecause I'm handsome and successful.(not ... as ...)

As and since are used when the reason is already well known, or is less important than the rest of the sentence. Since is a little more formal than as. As- and since-clauses often begin the sentence As women were not supposed to be novelists, she took the name George Eliot.

Since you refuse to cooperate, I shall be forced to take legal advice.

9. An adverbial clause of result denotes some consequences or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions so that or that. Result clauses always come after the main clause. We turned the radio up, so that everyone heard the announcement. You can also use so that to say that something was done in a particular way to achieve a desired result. Explain itso that a 10-year-old could understand you.

These result clauses are not separated by a comma.

So ... that, and such ... that are used in special kinds of structures to say that a result happens because something has a quality to a particular extent or because something is done in an extreme way.His speech wasso clearthat we could understand every word.

He spokeso clearlythat we could understand every word.

He madesuch a good speech that he was elected unanimously.

 

 

¹ 39 The compound sentence. Semantic relations between coordinate clauses.

A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactic whole in meaning and intonation. Such clauses are calledcoordinate, orconjoins.They are regarded as independent, for there is no hierarchy in the syntactic relationship between them.

Coordination can beasyndetic (with no special connector): Two is company, three is a crowd. Prosperity makes friends, adversity tries them.

or syndetic — expressed by special coordinators(coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs/conjuncts).

One beats the bush, and another catches the birds. He was quite well-off; also his whole family was rich.

In writing, asyndetically joined coordinate clauses are separated by a semicolon (;), a colon (:) or a dash (—). The semicolon is perhaps most frequently used:

All happy families resemble one another; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.

Using a comma instead of a semicolon is not recommended, but if the clauses are very short or the ideas expressed are closely related, a comma can be used: I came, I saw, I conquered.

The colon is mainly used to set off a clause that explains or elaborates the statement expressed in the first clause: My life had changed radically: I had a regular income and an apartment of my own.

The dash is especially common in informal writing; it can be used in the same way as a colon: We had a lovely time in Bermuda — the kids really enjoyed themselves.

The structure of tag questions and commands conforms to the asyndetic model:

He doesn't like his job, does he? Answer the door, would you?

If both asyndetic clauses are negative in meaning and the seconds clause opens with still less, much less or even less, this second clause has inverted word order: She doesn't even like him; much less does she want to marry him.In syndetic compound sentences the type of coordination is expressed explicitly by means of coordinators. There are four logical types of coordination:copulative, disjunctive, adversative andcausative-consecutive.

COPULATIVE COORDINATION The clauses are simply linked together to express two or more related facts by means of the following coordinators: and, (and) neither, neither ...nor [rare], nor, not only ...but (also), also, even, besides, furthermore [formal], moreover [formal], likewise, either, too, indeed, plus, etc A man is as old as he feels, and a woman is as old as she looks. The conjunction and, which is most frequently used, can imply a number of more specific relations than simple addition:

a) chronological sequence:The clock struck five and the first visitor arrived.

b) cause and consequence:We heard a strange noise on the roof, and mother suggested calling the police. "

c) contrast: — The day is short and the work is long.

d) condition: — Give me some money and I’ll get us something to eat.

e) comment or explanation:—There is only one thing to do now — and that's to sell our shares. USAGE NOTES

l. If two negative clauses are linked with the help of and, we often find either at the end of the second clause: Tony didn't turn up for the meeting, and Keith didn't either.

2. The first clause of a compound sentence containing not only has direct word order when this element is in medial position and inverted word order when not only is found in initial position. Compare: Harry not only lost his pocket-book, but he was also robbed of his Swiss watch.

The structure with inverted word order sounds more dramatic and is chiefly found in a formal literary style.

3. The second clauses of compound sentences opening with neither, nor, and neither, and nor, and so always have inverted word order:

I don't blame you, and neither do I doubt your honesty.

4. Compound sentences which consist of an imperative clause followed by a clause introduced by and and containing a verb in the future tense are used \n an informal style to express advice, threat or warning Do this again and I'll tell your parents.

 

DISJUNCTIVE COORDINATION

Compound sentences with disjunctive coordination express. an alternative, which is achieved with the help of the following coordinators: or, or else, either...or, otherwise.

Disjunctive sentences can be used to give advice, a warning or an order. Such sentences consist of an imperative clause and a clause opening with or/otherwise and containing a verb in the future tense: Hurry up, or you'll be late again. Don't make yourself a mouse, or the cat will eat you. ADVERSATIVE COORDINATION

In compound sentences with adversative coordination the statements expressed by the clauses are contrasted in meaning. This is achieved with the help of the following coordinators:

but, however, nevertheless, nonetheless [formal], still, and/but, yet, whereas, while, whilst [formal, old-fashioned], only [informal]. Knowledge makes one laugh, hut wealth makes one dance. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION

Compound sentences with causative-consecutive coordination express the idea of cause and consequence. This is done with the help of the following coordinators: for, hence [formal], consequently, then, therefore, thus [formal], accordingly, so [informal]. God help the poor, for the rich can help themselves.

All causative-consecutive coordinators, with the exception of for, can be preceded by and. In fact, the conjunction for is a borderline case between coordinators and subordinators. Sometimes it is roughly interchangeable with because, although the use of for in place of because is regarded as dated. Generally speaking, for gives a reason for something that is taken for granted, e.g.: We rarely stay at hotels, for we can't afford it.

Hence occurs in one-member as well as two-member clauses. Compare: The sculptor grew up in the Sudan; hence her interest in Nubian art. When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause. If the coordinator is and, or or then, the subject is not usually repeated, e.g.: He took her hand from her eyes and led her towards the house.

If the coordinator is but, so or yet, it is usual to repeat the subject: I try to see it their way, but I can't. When you link clauses which have different subjects but which have some common elements, you do not need to repeat all the elements in the second clause. For example, instead of saying 'Some of them went to one pub and some of them went to the other pub9, you can say This device of simplification, which allows us to subtract words from the complete clause structure, is calledellipsis.

 

 

¹ 40 Complex sentences with attributive clauses.

Attributive/relative clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal character, which is generally called theantecedent.An attributive/relative clause may be introduced by connectives — relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs {when, where, whence, wherein). The choice of the relative word depends on the antecedent.

Þ If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative pronoun, whom, whose, or that is used.

Do you know the people who/that live here?

Þ If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative word which, whose, or that is used.

They are producing a new computer, whose low cost will make it very attractive to students. Did you see the letter which/that came today?

NOTE: the difference between appositive and relative clauses beginning with that. In appositive clauses, which are used after abstract nouns such as fact, idea, etc., that is only a conjunction. In relative clauses that is a relative pronoun, it can be replaced by which and it acts as the subject or object of the clause.

The news that he was resigning his job proved to be incorrect, (appositive clause)

Þ If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally used or else the clause is joined asyndetically?

I've forgotten everything (that) I learnt at school.

Þ If the antecedent is modified by the adjectives only, same, the pronoun any or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that or is joined asyndeticallv. Last night was the only time (that) I kissed your sister.

You've made the same mistake (that) you made last time.

Þ If the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such ,the relative pronoun as is used

Such accommodation as she could find was expensive. (formal)

Þ Attributive clauses Joined by the relative adverbs when, where, whence refer to antecedents denoting time or place. This is the building where I work.

Prepositions can come either before relative pronouns or at the end of the relative clause. In conversational English, it is much more common to put prepositions at the end (and leave Out the pronoun). This is the room in which Churchill was born. (formal)

NOTE: that after a preposition who and that are impossible; whom and which must be used.

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTIVE/RELATIVE CLAUSES

The two major types of relative clausesarerestrictive/ defining relative clauses and non-restrictive/ non-defining relative clauses.

Restrictive/defining clauses identify more closely what the noun refers to. If you say I met the woman, it might not be clear who you mean, so you might say I met the woman who/ that lives next door. Restrictive relative clauses can be used after indefinite pronouns such as someone, anyone, everything.

Restrictive/defining relative clauses are not separated by a comma or a dash.

Non-defining relative clauses give further information which is not needed to identify the person, thing or group you are talking about. If you say I saw June Fowler, it is clear who you mean. But you might want to add more information about June Fowler, so you might say, for example, I saw June Fowler, who was staying at the hotel opposite.

Non-defining relative clauses are usually separated by commas or dashes. These clauses are used mainly in writing rather than in speech.

Relative clauses after names and nouns modified by possessive and demonstrative pronouns are normally non-defining. My car, which I bought only last year, needs repairing.

In non-restrictive relative clauses the relative pronoun is always a word beginning with,wh: who, whom, whose, which. Thatcannot be used.

Restrictive clauses have those relative Wh-words, but in addition they may be introduced by that or nothing.

In many instances the interpretation of the meaning of the sentence depends crucially on the punctuation. In the sentence We should ban television advertisements, which appeal to the baser instincts, the comma indicates that the clause is non-restrictive, in which case the plea is for a ban on all television advertisements and the claim is that they all appeal to the baser instincts. If the comma is omitted, the restrictive interpretation makes the proposed ban apply only to those television advertisements which appeal to the baser instincts.

A non-restrictive clause may refer back not to a noun but to a larger unit, a clause, a sentence or a series of sentences. It is called thena sentence-relative/continuative clause. It is generally introduced by .the connective which and separated by a comma, a semicolon or a dash. She said she'd been waiting for an hour, which was true.

In formal English relative pronouns and adverbs introducing non-defining clauses may also occur in prepositional phrases: instead of which, in spite of which, each of which, at which point, etc. She may have missed the train, in which case she won't arrive for another hour.


Date: 2015-12-11; view: 1296


<== previous page | next page ==>
Predicative complexes that function as adverbials only | MISCELLANEOUS PROPER NAMES
doclecture.net - lectures - 2014-2024 year. Copyright infringement or personal data (0.02 sec.)