Prepositional phrase

Concessive Clauses

Concessive clauses are used to concede a given point in an argument. The principle concessive conjunctions introducing a concessive clause are: Though, although, even though, while, and even if. They can be placed at the beginning, internally or at the of the sentence. When placed at the beginning or internally, they serve to concede a certain part of an argument before proceeding to question the validity of the point in a given discussion.

For example:

Even though there are many advantages to working the night shift, people who do so generally feel that the disadvantages greatly outweigh any financial advantages that might be gained.

By placing the concessive clause at the end of the sentence, the speaker is admitting a weakness or problem in that particular argument.

For example:

I tried hard to complete the task, though it seemed impossible.

Time Clauses

Time clauses are used to indicate the time that an event in the main clause takes place. The main time conjunctions are: when, as soon as, before, after, by the time, by. They are placed either at the beginning or the end of a sentence. When placed at the beginning of the sentence, the speaker is generally stressing the importance of the time indicated.

For example:

As soon as you arrive, give me a call.

Most often time clauses are placed at the end of a sentence and indicate the time that the action of the main clause takes place.

For example:

I had difficulties with English grammar when I was a child.

Place Clauses

Place clauses define the location of the object of the main clause. Place conjunctions include where and in which. They are generally placed following a main clause in order to define the location of the object of the main clause.

For example:

I will never forget Seattle where I spent so many wonderful summers.

Reason Clauses

Reason clauses define the reason behind a statement or action given in the main clause. Reason conjunctions include because, as, due to, and the phrase "that the reason why". They can be placed either before or after the main clause. If placed before the main clause, the reason clause usually gives emphasis to that particular reason.

For example:

Because of the tardiness of my response, I was not allowed to enter the institution.

Generally the reason clause follows the main clauses and explains it.

For example:

I studied hard because I wanted to pass the test.

A main clause—sometimes called an independent clause—must contain asubject and a verb as well as express a complete thought. Look at the examples below:

Diane kicked the soda machine.

Diane = the subject; kicked = the verb.

A giant spider has made its home behind the shampoo bottle in Neil's bathroom.

Spider = the subject; has made = the verb.

Sima and Michele are skipping their chemistry class to sit by the lake and watch the sun sparkle on the water.

Sima, Michele = the subjects; are skipping = the verb.

Remember this important point:

You must have at least one main clause in every sentence. A main clause isthe essential component. Without a main clause, a group of words is afragment, a major error in writing.

A sentence can contain any number of other grammatical units, such asparticiple phrases, prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses,appositives, etc. It must, however, contain at least one main clause. Take a look at the example below:

While dissecting a cow heart in her anatomy and physiology class, Shenicka realized that a cheeseburger, her favorite lunch, was no longer appetizing.

While dissecting a cow heart = participle phrase.

In her anatomy and physiology class = prepositional phrase.

Shenicka realized = the essential main clause.

That a cheeseburger was no longer appetizing = subordinate clause.

Her favorite lunch = appositive.

23. Word order: the three types (normal word order, partial inversion, full inversion)

The main function of word order is to express grammati­cal relations and determine the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position in the sentence. There exist two ways of arranging words - direct word order and inverted word order.

Direct word order

§ 116. The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence isSubject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order. Direct word order is also employed in pronominal questions to the subject or to its attribute.

Direct word orderallows of only few variations in the fixed pattern, and then only for the secondary parts. Thus if there are two objects, the indirect one precedes the direct one, or the prepositional follows the direct one. Thus the pattern has the following form:

Subject - Predicate -

Indirect object - Direct object Direct object - Prepositional object

Another common pattern of word order is the inverted one (or inversion). We distinguish full inversion (when the predicate precedes the subject, as in Here comes the lady of the house) and partial inversion (when only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as in Happy may you be!). Some grammarians also distinguish double inversion (when parts of the predicate are placed separately before the subject, as in Hanging on the wall was a picture).

In some cases inversion may be taken as a normal order of words in constructions with special communicative value, and is thus devoid of any special colouring. In other cases inversion is a sort of reordering for stylistic effect or for emphasis. First we enumerate those cases where inversion is a normal word order.

Inversion is usedto distinguish between the communicative types of sentences. With this function it is employed in:

a) General questions, polite requests and in tag questions.

Is it really true?

Won’t you have a cup of tea?

Inversion is used as a grammatical means of subordination in some complex sentences joined without connectors:

a) In conditional clauses.

Were you sure of it, you wouldn’t hesitate.

Had she known it before, she wouldn’t have made this mistake.

b) In concessive clauses.

Proud as he was, he had to consent to our proposal.

a) In the second part of a sentence of proportional agreement

Inversion is used in sentences beginning with adverbs denoting place. This usage is traditional, going back to OE norms.

Here is another example.

There goes another bus (туда идет еще один автобус, еще автобус идет).

4. Inversion is used in stage directions, although this use is limited to certain verbs.

Enter the King, the Queen.

Enter Beatie Bryant, an ample blond.

5. Inversion may be used in sentences indicating whose words or thoughts are given as direct or indirect speech. These sentences may introduce, interrupt, or follow the words in direct or indirect speech, or may be given in parenthesis.

“That’s him,” said Tom (Tom said).

How did he know, thought Jack, miserably.

Direct word order can also be used here.

6. Inversion is used in statements showing that the remark applies equally to someone or something else.

I am tired. - So am I.

He isn’t ready. - Neither is she.

24. Five types of phrase

There are several types of phrases used in English that are named after the most important words used in that phrase. By learning what these phrases look like and how they are used, the writer can construct stronger sentences.

Verb phrase

Verb phrases are easy to recognize. They consist of a verb and all the related helping words. Verb phrases function as single-word verbs, to express action or to link subject and complement.

1.1 I have been asking for a raise for ten years. (Verb phrases may consist of adjacent words)

1.2 Despite being an actor, he has never actually succeeded in learning many lines. (Verb phrases may have other words that interrupt them)

1.3 I've just been working on this, and the problem is in the cable. (Verb phrases may contain a contraction)

Prepositional phrase

Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers. Prepositional phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

2.1 The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (As adjective)

2.2 He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (As adverb)

2.3 For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (As noun; in this case, the subject)

2.4 She gave the information to me. (As indirect object)

Participial phrase

Participial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are formed from verbs and end in "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives; therefore, participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the sentence.

3.1 Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes "she")

3.2 The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes "actor")

3.3 He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object "cabinet")

Infinitive phrase

An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is the word "to" followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

4.1 To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun subject)

4.2 He wanted to see the Eiffel Tower, but he didn't know where it was. (As a noun direct object)

4.3 He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb)

4.4 The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective)

Gerund phrase

A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with an "ing" ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial phrases. The difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases function as nouns.

5.1 Geraldine's singing always enthralls the audience. (As subject)

5.2 Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object)

5.3 His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)

Absolute phrase

An absolute phrase, also called a "nominative absolute," contains a noun phrase subject and a "partial" predicate. Absolute phrases resemble clauses, but the predicate is incomplete, with forms of the word "be" being deleted from the phrase. Absolute phrases function as a type of modifier that explains more about the general circumstances occurring in the main clause. They may be placed at almost any position in the sentence.

6.1 The plumber disappeared into the hole, a pipe wrench in his hand.

6.2 Its lights off and its doors locked, the mansion looked spooky in the moonlight.

6.3 Many boats—their anchors buried in the sand—lay on the salty bed of the dried-up sea.

25. Primary clause elements

Clause: a unit of syntax consisting of at least two constituents, a subject and a predicate. Clauses are the building blocks of sentences, although they can also be constituents of phrases (see the discussion below). The usual structure of clauses in English is subject + predicate. The subject is the topic of discussion that the particular sentence focuses on -- this is very often a topic or subtopic of the text in which the clause appears. The fact that the predicate gives information about the subject is the grounds for the overly vague traditional definition of subject, the subject of the sentence is what the sentence is about. It is far more informative to say that the subject is what the predicate tells us something about. This, of course, requires that we have some means of determining what is the subject and what is the predicate of a sentence. For a technique native speakers of English can use to do these, go to the page "Finding Subjects."

Consider this little text, which consists of three clauses:

The general topic of this text, the main person or thing under discussion, is 'my mother'. An expression referring to her -- 'my mother' in the first clause, 'she' in the second -- is the subject of the first two clauses. Notice how the rest of each clause -- the predicate -- gives a comment: some information about the topic. The predicate of the first clause tells where she works; the predicate of the second tells what her position is. The third clause has a different, but related subject: we know from our knowledge of the world that a manager in a major company is likely to have an office of her own. So a subtopic, 'her office,' occurs as subject in the third clause. Notice that the predicate of that third clause, has its own bathroom, gives a comment about the office.

As is frequently the case for expository texts like this, the subject position in each sentence is reserved for something topical: it is used to introduce a topic or subtopic the first time it is mentioned (as in the first and third sentences), and it is used to retain an introduced topic for further comment, as in the second sentence. In this way, subject position serves as a tool for text cohesion by relating incoming new information to the current focused topic of the text.

Our definition of subject is different from another one offered by traditional grammar: the subject is the clause element which performs the action of the verb. This is a typical definition for subject, but it is only accurate in certain types of clauses. Not all clauses involve action; and sometimes the topic of our conversation is not the performer of the verb's action. For example:

a. Carlos resembles his grandfather.
b. Two students were injured at the football game last night.
c. Oversleeping yesterday saved my life. My carpool mates had a terrible crash.

Sentence a. does not involve any action: Carlos isn't 'doing' anything; he just possesses certain physical traits. In sentence b, there is action -- injuries happen -- but the sentence is about the people who suffered the injury, not the thing that caused the injury. The cause of the injury isn't even mentioned in the sentence. In sentence c., there is also no action in the verb 'save': it refers to a situation rather than an action.

Clause elements (building blocks of clause structure)

Date: 2015-12-11; view: 1489