Non-finite verbs (verbids) . Infinitive and gerund.

Verbids are the forms of the verb intermediary in many lexico-grammatical features between the verb and substantive parts of speech (nouns and adjectives). The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the meaning, combinability and syntactic functions. The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial interpretation. They are formed by morphemes that do not express the most specific finite verb categories of tense and mood, number and person. In the sentence they perform as substantives or properties, combining with notional and link-verbs. But they perform verbal, processual functions within their own combinations, or constructions, combining with nouns, pronouns, adverbs. – You choose getting well with the choice of acting right and handling problems as they appear.-

The division of functions between the finite and non-finite forms (predication) shows that the opposition between them creates a grammatical category of finitude.

The four verbids: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle and the past participle are different in form, meaning and function.

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of the process. By virtue of its general process – naming function, the infinitive should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb (like the nominative case in a Russian noun). It represents the derivation base for all the forms of verbs, with very few exceptions.

The infinitive is used in three fundamentally different types of functions: 1. As a notional, self-positional syntactic part of the sentence – I’d like to go on holiday. (object)- free form

2. as the notional constituent of a complex verbal predicate – Can speak, must know, it may rain – half-free form

3. as the notional constituent of a finite conjugation form of the verb – do you know/does he know, will/would do.- bound form

The combinability of the infinitive reflects its dual semantic nature: the verb-type combinability is displayed in its combining with nouns expressing the object of the action, the subject – I want the friends to help me. – modifying adverbs, predicator verbs of semi-functional nature – seemed to know, began to do regularly - , with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb.

The noun-type combinability is displayed in its combining with finite notional verbs - want to do -, to visit him was unwise – as the object or the subject of the action. (You have studied the functions of the infinitive in various constructions in your book of practical grammar by Yastrebova, p. 79-114. 9 patterns, for-phrases, Complex Object and Complex Subject. You must be able to give examples of those constructions at the exam).

The functions of the infinitive in the sentence are: subject (Complex Subject – The students expected the professor to come.-), object, (including introduced by the preposition-particle for – It is incredible for that shy-looking young man to speak so boldly - ; Complex object – We have heard him play the violin. -) predicative, attribute – There is a plot to overthrow the government. –

Adverbial modifier of purpose – He worked hard not to lag behind the group.-

Adverbial modifier of result - he was too worried to listen. –

The gerund

The gerund is the non-finite verb form which also combines the properties of the verb with those of a noun. Similar to the infinitive, it serves as the verbal name of the process, but it has a stronger substantive quality. As different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive (or common) case or a pronoun (expressing the subject of the verbal process) – The driver’s(his) being rude like that was disgusting. I read about the hostages having been released. -, and it can be used with prepositions.

The combinability of the gerund is also dual, sharing some features of the verb (inside the construction) with some of the noun. The verb-type combinability is shown in combination with nouns-objects, modifying adverbs, semi-functional predicator verbs (start doing, can’t stand doing). Of the noun-type is combinability with finite notional verbs as the object, subject, as prepositional adjunct (object, attribute, modifier), with nouns as prepositional adjunct.

The functions of gerund in the sentence can be:

Subject – Repeating your accusations doesn’t make them more convincing.

Object – He delayed breaking news.

Prepositional object – He didn’t object against our coming here.

Predicative – Luck is believing you’re lucky.

Attribute – There is a pleasant prospect of listening to her story.

The formal sign of the gerund is homonymous with that of the present participle, it is the suffix – ing added to its categorially (not semantically) leading element.

The gerund distinguishes two grammatical categories: the aspect of retrospective coordination and voice. The paradigm includes four forms:

Non-objective verbs don’t have passive forms (go).

Since the meaning of the infinitive and the gerund is similar, the reason of usage of the infinitive after verbs want, expect, and the like, and the gerund after avoid, delay, deny, and the like, lies in semantic shade of infinitive having the meaning of purpose, which can be proved by transformation – I want to come. – I want it to happen so, in order me to come. – I deny coming. – I deny the fact, the thing of coming. – It is also brightly reflected in the use of gerund/infinitive with stop, remember and try.

The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying name of the process. The term “present” has nothing to do with time, it is only traditional, can be called “participle I”, or “active”.

It has the derivation morpheme homonymous with the gerund, and completely the same paradigm.

Adverbs.

The adverb is defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. Adverbs are characterized by combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers. “The woman was crying hysterically.” – an adverbial modifier of manner. “He was nervously anxious’ – an adverbial modifier of property qualification.

From the point of view of the word-building structure adverbs can be simple (very, here, quite, when) and derived: suffix –ly (slowly, firstly), -ways (sideways, crossways), -wise (clockwise, counter-clockwise), -ward(s) (homewards, afterwards). The characteristic adverbial prefix is a- (away, ahead, apart, across).

Some adverbs are converted from other parts of speech: adjectives – fast, late, high, tight, many of them have another form, formed of adjective with the suffix –ly, but with a different meaning: to fall flat into the water – to refuse flatly, to fly high – to raise a highly theoretical question.

From adjectives with –ly adverbs are also converted – daily, weekly, lively, timely.

From prepositions and conjunctions – never before/ never before a meeting, somewhere round/round the corner, to hold within/within a week.

There is a group of preposition-adverb-like words, which form phrasal words – look up, through, after. They are intermediate between functional words and morphemes, particles of semi-morphemic nature.

The subgroups of adverbs – qualitative (-ly)- bitterly, plainly; quantitative (words of degree) and circumstantial (words of pronominal nature).

There are several types of quantitative adverbs, functional words, not possessing nominative value :

1. adverbs of high degree, intensifiers: very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much.

2. Adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse): too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically.

3. Adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, unexpectedly, astonishingly, amazingly.

4. Adverbs of moderate degree: rather, fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately.

5. Adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit.

6. Approximate degree: almost, nearly

7. Optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately

8. Inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably, unbearably, ridiculously

9. Under-degree: hardly, scarcely.

10. Numerical-pronominal adverbs: twice, four times, twofold, manifold – they have full notional value

Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional. The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature: time, place, manner, cause, consequence – now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why. Others have nominative value: adverbs of time and place: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late, homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore.

Qualitative adverbs have the category of degrees of comparison: quickly-quicker-quickest-less quickly-least quickly. Adverbs converted from adjectives form degrees of comparison synthetically (fast-faster-fastest), so do “quickly” and “slowly”. Adverbs with the suffix –ly form degrees of comparison with more/most. Adverbs “well, far, much, little, badly” form suppletive degrees of comparison or based on the sound alternation.

Similar to adjectives, adverbs with “most” can be used as elative constructions: He described it most correctly. = very correctly

Preposition

The prepositions express the relations between words in a sentence. They don’t have their own lexical meaning or independent function in the sentence, but they are a most important element of the structure. In English they are one of the main means of expressing relations between nouns and other part of the sentence. Prepositions of place even express extralingustic relations, like notional parts of speech – on the table-under the table -.

The preposition connects words in such patterns as: “noun+preposition+noun”, “adjective+preposition+noun”, “verb+preposition+noun”. What predicts the use of this or that preposition? Sometimes it is the preceding word: depend on, interested in. In these cases the connection between the preposition and the preceding word is stronger than the connection with the following word, and usually this noun is an object, but if the connection with the following word is stronger – is under the table, rises in the morning – the noun is the adverbial modifier.

The preposition express various relations – place, time, cause etc. and are the only means of expressing those relations, as there are no case inflections of nouns:

The roof of the house – showed the letter to the manager – the letter was signed by the manager – he cut the apple with a knife.

The form of the prepositions can be simple, (on, in, with), composite (without, upon) and group prepositions, or word-combinations serving as prepositions: according to, instead of, in spite of. Some prepositions are derived from participles and have the same form: concerning, regarding.

Some prepositions have the same form, as adverbs, but they are different in function: We spoke about health. – Children were running about. Across the road – put it across. Down the stairs – looked down (up, down, after, by, in, on, about, across, above).

Particles

Particles are functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. They show subjective attitude. They refer to the word (or phrase) immediately following and give special prominence to the notion expressed by this word, or single it out in some other way, depending on the meaning of the particle. One just does what is reasonable. She could feel anger, even at this late date.

It can stand apart from the word it refers to – I have only met him twice.It is a specific part of the sentence, because without it the meaning of it changes.

The particle not deserves special treatment. It may stand outside the predicate – Not till we landed did we realize that we are alive. Or in short answers: Certainly not. Perhaps not. Of course not. (with modal words). It appears to be the main part of the sentence. Another use is within the predicate, as part of the verb: I am not, he is not, she does not. Here the particle is an auxiliary element within the morphology of the verb, and it has no syntactic function of its own. Its becoming a morpheme within the verb form is seen in the contracted forms isn’t, wouldn’t.

Sometimes the word almost causes doubts whether it is an adverb or a particle: The boat almost overturned. – whether it shows the subjective attitude (it was in danger of overturning) or it denotes the manner in which the action was conducted. It can be felt in the translation – чуть не перевернулась – particle, почти перевернулась – adverb.

Date: 2015-12-11; view: 4356