As Sophia, Electress of Hanover, had died two months before Queen Anne who died in 1714, Sophia's eldest son George, Elector of Hanover, inherited the throne under the Act of Settlement of 1701. His claim was challenged by James Stuart, Roman Catholic son of James II, who landed in Scotland in 1715, following a rising of Scottish clans on his behalf; this was unsuccessful and he soon withdrew. George I (reigned 1714 - 27) spoke German and French and a little English; he regularly visited Hanover to fulfil his duties there. Family tensions (George imprisoned his wife in 1694) and political intrigue (opposition gathered round the Prince of Wales) led to differences and intense dislike between George and his son, George. In 1719 and 1720, and during most of the King's absences in Hanover, power was delegated to Regency Council and not to the Prince of Wales. Unfamiliar with the customs of the country and lacking fluent English, George was dependent on his ministers - the Whigs dominated Parliament during his reign. After 1717, George rarely attended Cabinet meetings. This allowed the Cabinet to act collectively and formulate policies, which, provided they were backed by a majority in the Commons, the king was usually powerless to resist. After the South Sea Bubble crisis of 1720, - when the South Sea Company, with heavy government and royal investments, crashed, Robert Walpole took over. The most able of George's ministers, and known as the first “Prime Minister”, Walpole's was the longest running administration in British history (1721 - 42). George died in 1727, during a visit to Hanover.
George I
2. George II
George II (reigned 1727 - 60), at the age of 60, was the last British sovereign to fight alongside his soldiers, at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743 in Germany, against the French. Like his father, for much of his reign George's political options were limited by the strength of the Jacobite cause (James Stuart the Old Pretender, and then his son, Charles Edward Stuart), with which many of the Tories were linked. George's reign was threatened in 1745 when Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, landed in Scotland. After some initial success, which led to the national anthem in its current form becoming popular among the Hanoverian loyalists, Charles was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746 and the Jacobite threat was over. The foundations of the industrial revolution were laid during George's reign, with new levels of production in industries such as coal and shipbuilding and also in agriculture, together with a rapid rise in population. Overseas, trade was boosted by successes such as Clive's victories in India at Arcot (1751) and Plassey (1757), which placed Madras and Bengal under British control, and Wolfe's capture of French-held Quebec in 1759 - part of a successful campaign which transferred Canada with its wealthy trade in fish and fur from French to British rule. As the country prospered and George's reign lengthened, his early unpopularity changed into a general respect. The King's eldest son, Frederick, died in 1751. George's grandson therefore inherited the throne, on George's death in 1760.
George II
George III
George III (reigned 1760 - 1820) was determined to appoint his own ministers and reassert some of the Monarch's independence lost under the first two Georges. However, George's accession in 1760 marked a significant change in Royal finances; it was agreed that the whole cost of the Civil List should be provided by Parliament in return for the surrender of hereditary revenues by the king for the duration of his reign. His reign saw the loss of the American colonies in 1783. After an uprising in Ireland in 1798, the Act of Union of 1801 linked Ireland and England and dissolved the Irish Parliament; instead Irish representatives went to the Westminster Parliament. George was a conscientious King and a devoted father and husband; his interest in botany and farming earned him the nickname “Farmer George.” In 1788 he became mentally deranged, although this may have been due to porphyria, a hereditary physical disorder. George recovered by 1789, but then relapsed, becoming permanently deranged in 1810.
George III
George IV
George IV (reigned 1820 - 30) was 48 when he became Regent in 1811. He had secretly and illegally married a Roman Catholic, Mrs Fitzherbert. In 1795 he officially married Princess Caroline of Brunswick, but the marriage was a failure and he tried unsuccessfully to divorce her after his accession in 1820. Their only child Princess Charlotte died giving birth to a stillborn child. An outstanding, if extravagant, collector and builder, George IV acquired many important works of art, built the Royal Pavilion at Brighton, and transformed Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace. George's fondness for pageantry helped to develop the ceremonial side of monarchy. After his father's long illness, George resumed royal visits; he visited Hanover in 1821, and Ireland and Scotland over the next couple of years. Beset by debts, George was in a weak position in relation to his Cabinet of ministers. His concern for royal prerogative was sporadic; when the Prime Minister Lord Liverpool fell ill in 1827, George at one stage suggested that ministers should choose Liverpool's successor. In 1829, George IV was forced by his ministers, much against his will and his interpretation of his coronation oath, to agree to Catholic Emancipation. By reducing religious discrimination, this emancipation enabled the monarchy to play a more national role. George's profligacy and marriage difficulties meant that he never regained much popularity, and he spent his final years in seclusion at Windsor, dying at the age of 67.
George IV
5. William IV
At the age of 13, William became a midshipman and began a career in the Royal Navy. In 1789, he was made duke of Clarence. He retired from the Navy in 1790. Between 1791 and 1811 he lived with his mistress, the actress Mrs Jordan, and the growing family of their children known as the Fitzclarences. William married Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen in 1818, but their children died in infancy. The third son of George III, William became heir apparent at the age of 62 when his older brother died. William's reign (reigned 1830 - 37) was dominated by the Reform crisis, beginning almost immediately when Wellington's Tory government supported by William lost the general election in August 1830. Pledged to parliamentary reform, Grey's Whig government won a further election which William had to call in 1831 and then pushed through a reform bill against the opposition of the Tories and the House of Lords, using the threat of the creation of 50 or more peers to do so. The failure of the Tories to form an alternative government in 1832 meant that William had to sign the Great Reform Bill. Control of peerages had been used as a party weapon, and the royal prerogative had been damaged. The Reform Bill abolished some of the worst abuses of the electoral system, for example: representation for so called “rotten boroughs”, which had long ceased to be of any importance, was stopped, and new industrial towns obtained representation. The Reform Act also introduced standardised rules for the franchise and, by extending the franchise to the middle classes, greatly increased the role of public opinion in the political process. William understood the theory of the more limited monarchy, once saying “I have my view of things, and I tell them to my ministers. If they do not adopt them, I cannot help it. I have done my duty.” William died a month after Victoria had come of age, thus avoiding another regency.
William IV
THE JACOBITE REBELLION
The term "Jacobite"is the name commonly given to English and Scottish supporters of the exiled Stuart dynasty, in particular the Roman Catholic line of these Kings. The name is derived from Jacobus, the Latin name for King James VII, the last Stuart King to sit on the British throne. Although the '45 rebellion gains most of the attention in this period's history the Revolution actually started on April 4, 1689. For it was on this date a convention parliament declared that James VII forfeited the Scottish throne. It was a time of great chaos in the British Isles, as there were numerous political and religious groups vying for power in the country. They consisted of the Catholic, Protestant, and Presbyterian religions that were even further refined by the political alignments of Whig, Tory, Roundhead, Royalist, and numerous other factions. King Charles II had understood the need for tolerance during this time of political upheaval, and had managed to prosper with his restoration to the Crown after the Cromwell experience. But his brother, James VII, who apparently understood this need for tolerance, did not balance it against his natural desire for the security of his government. James VII came to power as King of Scotland and England in 1685, after the death of his brother. He was quickly forced to deal with a revolt, which centred on the claims of his nephew, the illegitimate son of Charles II, James Scott, and Duke of Monmouth. The revolt was quickly put down, but James was severe in his punishment of the participants. In his desire for personal security, James decided to maintain a standing army.
He further helped his cause by installing many Roman Catholics into positions of authority in the army and government. While this move seemed a proper choice, it served to aggravate the situation, as many feared that the army would swoop down on any faction seen as opposing the King, religious or otherwise. The King himself was Roman Catholic, while most of the country was Protestant. In 1688, two things happened which sparked a revolt and the later eviction of King James from Great Britain. First there was the birth of a son and heir to the throne, and secondly, King James put into law the "Declaration of Indulgence". The Declaration allowed Catholics and dissenters (any religion besides Protestant) to worship freely and was quite a revolutionary law for its time. But the move was seen as an increase in power and threat to the Protestants. In response, those against James VII invited William of Orange to England. William was a Protestant by religion and the husband of Mary, eldest daughter of James and therefore son-in-law to the King. William landed in England in November 1688 and with his arrival most of the standing army of England deserted to his side. The King, James VII, was forced to retreat from England in fear of his life, taking his newborn son with him. England quickly stabilized in this transference of power, which was named the Glorious Revolution because of the lack of bloodshed, but Scotland was thrown into complete chaos.
Most of Scotland was Roman Catholic, and heavily favoured James VII as their rightful King. But in the south of the country, the populace largely consisted of the Convenanters, a Presbyterian group. The Convenanters quickly, - under the threat of violence, gained control of the Scottish Parliament and issued the Claim of Right which condemned James for his actions: 1) James had forfeited the Crown by deserting his country; 2) No “Papist” (Roman Catholic) could be King; 3) That "Prelacy and superiority of any office in the Church above Presbyters, is, and hath been a great and insupportable grievance and trouble to this Nation".
The matter was further fuelled by the fact that France and Spain were both Roman Catholic countries. The two countries were England's enemies and the Jacobite or Scottish sympathizers were therefore considered enemies of England. By this means, the stage was set for a revolution, a Jacobite revolution that would cover a period of almost sixty years, and although repeatedly unsuccessful, would greatly affect the history of England, Scotland, and even Ireland. The Jacobite Rebellion, although a battle of succession for the British throne, was also a battle of religion. England was mainly Protestant, while Scotland and Ireland were largely Roman Catholic. Add to this mix the Presbyterians of lower Scotland and the stage is set for war. And although the events are called a rebellion, the conflict was in fact a war of religion, which encompassed all, England, Scotland, and Ireland during the period of 1689 - 1747. Sadly, its effects are still felt in Great Britain today. The first battle of the “religious war” took place in 1689. John Graham, Viscount Dundee raised the standard of James VII in April of that year. By July he had the support of most of the Highland Clans and clergy and moulded these forces around a base force of cavalry, which he commanded. On July 27th, the Jacobites under John Graham met and defeated a larger government army under Mackay in the Pass of Killiecrankie near Pitlorchy. The Jacobites won, but John Graham himself was killed. Without his leadership, this rebellion quickly petered out after another battle at Dunkeld on August 21st, 1689.
But King James VII, although removed from power, was busy gaining money and support in France. In 1690, he landed in Ireland to actively wage war on William III in an attempt to regain his kingdom. He quickly amassed an army of 21,000 that was met by William with his own army of 35,000 on the banks of the Boyne River, on July 12th. James Stuart was easily defeated and was forced to return to France and exile. In response to this battle an organization called the Orangemen was created. The Orangemen were supporters of the Protestant William and continue to celebrate the Battle of the Boyne victory annually on its anniversary. Support for King James was largely subdued at this point in Ireland, while his support in Scotland was wounded but still alive. A revolution settlement in 1690 further enforced the Protestant cause when it endorsed Presbyterianism, much to the dismay of the Catholics. Some claim that the "Massacre at Glencoe" on February 13th, 1692 was a further effort to eliminate Jacobite supporters for King James. For a time at least, things died down, but were not by any means settled. The Protestant and Presbyterian religions were firmly in power and the prosecution of the Catholics continued almost unabated. In 1701, James VII (James II of England) died and in response King Louis XIV of France declared that James Frances Edward Stuart was now the rightful King of England. He became James III of England or James VIII of Scotland to his supporters, but still lived a life in exile in France. In response to some calls in England and Scotland for his placement on the English throne the government in England passed the "Act of Settlement".
John Graham, Viscount Dundee
The Act of Settlement secured by law the succession of the English Crown to the House of Hannover in the Protestant faith, with one exception, that being any heir of birth of Queen Anne, the last of the Protestant Stuarts. Therefore the normal law of succession of the Crown was ignored, and a line of rightful heirs was removed because of their religion. The Protestant and Presbyterian religions further increased their power with the Act of Union in 1707, but many Scotsmen complained openly to the loss of their country. In response, King James III led a half-hearted and scantly supported effort at invasion of Scotland in 1708, but was quickly forced to return to France. Numerous small plots were hatched to return James to power, but these fell largely on the whims of Spain and France, which were the only countries with both the power and desire to unseat the Protestant rule of England. But the Jacobite cause was still strong in the heart of many a Scotsman. In 1714 died Queen Anne, the last of Protestant Stuart monarchs. In her place, King George I came into power. George was viewed as a foreigner and his inability to speak English did not endear him to his critics. Many people were very dissatisfied with this arrangement, including the Earl of Mar, who was rebuffed when he went to meet with the new monarch. In response to this snub, the Earl responded by again raising the colours of the exiled Stuart kings. This rebellion of the Jacobite cause led by the Earl of Mar began in 1715. By the end of September, most of the Highlands were in his control and his army numbered some 5,000 with more appearing daily. But all this was done without even notifying the King they were claiming to support. The "Old Pretender", King James III, was not even aware of the situation as of yet. Word was sent to the King, and the size of the force continued to grow. The Earl, with his growing army, moved to Perth and established his base there after taking the city.
Meanwhile another Jacobite army was forming to the south, The Old Pretender hearing the news began to make preparations for his trip to Scotland and his crowning. By early November, the northern Jacobite army numbered some 12,000, mostly clansmen from the Highlands. The Earl then decided to march south where he soon met the army of the Duke of Argyll, the only remaining government troops in Scotland. The Jacobite forces were mismanaged and split. The southern army marched south to raise Lancashire instead of turning on the Duke of Argyll's flank, while a much smaller force under the Duke defeated the larger northern army of the Jacobites at Sherrifmuir on November 13th. The southern army was also met and defeated at Preston by other government forces in England. The Jacobites were forced to retreat to Perth, while still waiting for their leader to arrive. The "Old Pretender" finally arrived in Scotland on the 22nd of December after leaving fittingly enough from Dunkirk. But the matter was already settled; as the Duke of Argyll was already receiving reinforcements of experienced troops and was preparing an overwhelming force to march north. The King, James III, was again forced to retreat after spending a dismal six weeks in Scotland. After facing this possibly disastrous rebellion, the English soon passed the Disarming Act of 1716, which forbade the Highlanders from owning weapons. Another abortive rebellion was attempted in 1719, when James III got some minor support from both the French and the Spanish after he married the daughter of the Polish King. In the aftermath of the Risings of 1715 and 1719 Major General George Wade was appointed to investigate conditions in the Highlands by the English. The main results of this were building of better roads, so troops could move more easily, and the building of the major forts of Fort Augustus and Fort William. The Polish bride of the Old Pretender quickly gave James III two sons: the eldest, Prince Charles, was born in Italy somewhat prophetically on the last day of the year 1720. His brother, Henry, was born on March 6th, 1725. The Stuart cause passed to the older of the two boys, who led the Scottish armies again during the '45 as “Bonnie Prince Charlie”.
But this final Jacobite rebellion was also doomed to failure by lack of intelligence and poor leadership after many successes. This final rebellion ended at Culloden, a total disaster for the Scots, and Prince Charlie barely escaped. This ended the Jacobite Rebellions forever, as the English quickly passed many Acts against the Highlanders. In retrospect, the Jacobite Rebellions are a reminder of man's fear of those who are different. It was largely a war of religion, fought for reasons that have no real bearing on the peaceful lives of those who fought in it, even though the participants thought so. The Rebellions of '15 and '45 could have ended much differently, as they had surprise and superior forces working in their favour. But they simply lacked the leadership to effectively take advantage of the situation. Unfortunately, this episode in history continues to cause problems for the remaining Celtic nations. The Orangemen and the Catholics continue to fight, although any reason to continue this feud has passed long ago.
George I
George II
George III
George IV
William IV
John Graham, Viscount Dundee
