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Present tenses§ 15. All the present tenses (The present indefinite, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present perfect continuous) refer the actions they denote to the present, that is to, the time of speaking. The difference between them lies in the way they express the categories of aspect and perfect. The present indefinite (The simple present) Meaning. The present indefinite refers the action which it denotes to the present time in a broad sense. It bears no indication as to the manner in which the action is performed, that is whether it is perfective (complete) or imperfective (incomplete), momentary or durative (continuous), iterative or inchoative, etc. Any of these meanings can be imparted to the form by the lexical meaning of the verb or by the context. Neither does it bear any indication as to the precedence of the action it denotes to the moment of speaking. § 16. Formation. Some of the forms of the present indefinite are synthetic (affirmative forms), some - analytic (interrogative and negative forms). Affirmative forms for all persons singular and plural except the 3rd person singular coincide with the infinitive stem: to speak - I speak, you speak, they speak. The 3rd person singular form is built from the same stem by means of the inflexion -s, -es: to speak [spi:k] - he speaks [spi:ks]; to land [lænd] - he lands [lændz]; to wish [wI∫] - he wishes [´wI∫Iz]. As can be seen from the above examples, the pronunciation and spelling of the inflection of the 3rd person singular vary: 1. Verb stems ending in vowels and voiced consonants (except voiced sibilants and affricates) take the inflection -s which is pronounced [z]:
The 3rd person singular of the verb to say (says) is pronounced [sez]. In verb stems ending in the letter ó and preceded by a consonant the letter ó is replaced by the letters ie:
The verbs to go and to do and their compounds (to forego, to overdo, etc.) take the inflexion [z] spelled as -es: to go [gou] - he goes [gouz], the verb to do (and its compounds) changes its root vowel:
The 3rd person singular of the verb to have is has [hæz]. 2. Verb stems ending in voiceless consonants (except voiceless sibilants and affricates) take the inflexion -s pronounced [s]:
3. Verb stems ending in sibilants and affricates take either the inflexion -s or -es. Both are pronounced [ɪz]: a) -es if the final letters of the stem are -s, -sh, -ss, -x, -z, -zz, -ch, -tch:
b) -s if the final letters of the stem are -se, -ce, -ze, -ge, -dge (i.e. sibilants and affricates plus the mute e):
§ 17. Interrogative and negative forms of the present indefinite are analytical and are built by means of the present indefinite of the auxiliary to do and the infinitive of the notional verb. Besides these there is one more type of forms, namely negative-interrogative forms, which has two possible patterns. The paradigm of the verb in the present indefinite
Negative-interrogative
Note: The auxiliary to do can occur in the affirmative form as well, if special emphasis is required. In this case the auxiliary is always stressed: Ask him again, he ‘does know what it was. She ‘does help me so much! § 18. There are some verbs that form their present indefinite in a different way. These are: 1) The verb to be, which has synthetic forms not only for affirmative, but also for interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative structures. Besides, it distinguishes the category of number and has in the singular the category of person 2) The verb to have when meaning to possess also builds its interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms synthetically. When the verb to have has a modal meaning or when it is used as part of a phrase verb it makes its interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms in the ordinary way, that is with the auxiliary to do: When do you have to get up in order to catch the first morning train? She does not have any lunch at home. 3) All the modal verbs do not take the inflexion -s in the 3rd person singular. They form their interrogative and negative forms without the auxiliary to do.
§ 19. The present indefinite. 1. To state facts in the present. I live in St.-Petersburg. Most dogs bark. It’s a long way to Tipperary. 2. To state general rules or laws of nature, that is to show that something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future. It snows in winter. Snow melts at 0°C. Two plus two makes four. 3. To denote habitual actions or everyday activity. They get up at 8. On Sundays we stay at home. Do you often go to the dancing hall? 4. To denote actions and states continuing at the moment of speaking (with statal and relational verbs, verbs of sense and mental perception.) Who does the car belong to? I do not see what you are doing. Now I hear you perfectly well. I do not understand you at all. 5. To express declarations, announcements, etc. referring to the moment of speaking. I declare the meeting open. I agree to your proposal. I offer you my help. 6. To denote a succession of action going on at the moment of speaking. Now watch me closely: I take a match, light it, put it into the glass and ... oh, nothing happens! 7. To denote future actions. a) Mostly with verbs of motion (to go, to come, to start, to leave, to return, to arrive, to sail and some other verbs), usually if the actions denote a settled plan and the future time is indicated: I go to Moscow next week. They start on Sunday. She leaves for England in two months. What do you do next Sunday? b) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, as soon as, as long as, before, after, while, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided, etc.: When she comes, ring me up, please. Do it as soon as you are through with your duties. I promise not to tell her anything if you help me to get out of here. However in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if it is the future indefinite that is used to denote future actions: I don’t know when she will come. I’m not sure if she will come at all. 8. To denote past actions: a) in newspaper headlines, in the outlines of novels, plays., films, etc.:
Dog Saves Its Master. Students Say No to New Weapon. Then Fleur meets Little Jon. They fall in love with each other. b) in narratives or stories to express past actions more vividly (the so-called historic present): It was all so unexpected. You see, I came home late last night, turned on the light and - whom do you think I see? Jack, old Jack, sleeping in the chair. I give a cry, rush to him and shake him by the shoulder. 9. To denote completed actions with the meaning of the present perfect (with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told). I forget your telephone number. I hear you are leaving for England? I am told she returned from France last week.
The present continuous § 20. Meaning. The present continuous* denotes an action which is in progress at the moment of speaking. * Nowadays it is sometimes called "the present progressive".
§ 21. Formation. All the forms of the present continuous are analytic. They are formed by means of the present indefinite of the auxiliary to be and participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the corresponding form of the auxiliary to be is placed before the subject and participle I follows it. In the negative the negation ‘not’ is placed after the auxiliary.
The paradigm of the verb in the present continuous
Negative-interrogative
In spoken English contractions are commonly used (I’m, he’s, it’s, we’re, etc.). A reduced negative for the first person singular is I’m not, but is replaced by aren’t in the negative - interrogative.
§ 22. The present continuous is used with all actional and some statal verbs (with the reservations destribed below): 1. To denote continuous actions going on at the moment of speaking. Look, how happily they are playing! Don’t bother him, he’s working. Listen! The telephone is ringing. Go and answer it. - Can I see Mary? - You must wait a little while, she is having breakfast. The present indefinite, not the present continuous, is used to denote actions which though going on at the moment of speaking, are important as simple facts, rather than as actions in progress. Why don’t you answer? Why don’t you write? Where is your pen? Stop talking! Why don’t you listen?
If two simultaneous actions are in progress at the moment of speaking, three variants are possible: a) one action is expressed by the verb in the present indefinite, the other - by the present continuous: Do you hear what I am saying! b) both the actions are expressed by verbs in the present continuous: Are you listening to what I am saying? At home he is always sleeping while I am doing chores. c) both the actions are expressed by verbs in the present indefinite: Several students watch carefully while he writes it on the board. The use of the present indefinite instead of the present continuous is due to the semantic peculiarities of the verb. The present continuous is not generally used with some verbs - the verbs of sense perception, of mental or emotional state and with relational verbs. Still exceptions may occur with these verbs too. With the verbs of sense perception the use of the tense form is closely connected with what kind of perception is meant - voluntary (deliberate) or involuntary. In case these verbs denote a voluntary action: to listen (ñëóøàòü), to look (ñìîòðåòü) or if they may denote both an involuntary and a voluntary action, such as: to feel (îùóïûâàòü), to smell (íþõàòü), to taste (ïðîáîâàòü íà âêóñ), they can occur in continuous forms.
In the same way verbs of mental and emotional states can acquire a different meaning and occur in the present continuous and other continuous forms.
In some cases it is not so much a change of meaning as a change in the quality or intensity of the idea expressed by the verb that makes it possible to use the continuous form. I am forgetting things more and more now. She is understanding grammar better now. Don’t shout, I'm hearing you perfectly well. What are you seeling there in this complete darkness. You see, she is knowing too mucht. All this time I'm hating them. I am feeling quite all right. The relational verbs (belong, cost, etc.) are not used in the continuous form. 2. To denote actions characteristic of a certain period of present time, the moment of speaking included. As a rule these actions are temporary. They are spending their holidays at the sea-side this summer. Your behaviour is killing your wife. It is autumn now. The birds are flocking together. 3. To denote (for the sake of emphasis) actions in progress referring to all or any time, the moment of speaking included. In this case the adverbials ever, forever, constantly, always are obligatory. Our solar system together with the Milky Way is constantly moving towards Vega. The Volga is forever pouring its waters into the Caspian Sea. Mankind is always developing its mental faculties. 4. To denote actions characteristic of a certain person within more or less long periods of present time, the moment of speaking included and provoking certain emotions in the speaker (inpatience, irritation, disapproval, praise, etc.). Sentences with such forms are always emotionally coloured. Oh, I have no patience with you. Why are you always losing your things? Though she is only ten, she is very kind-hearted, she is always pitying everybody.
In such sentences the adverbials always or constantly are also obligatory. 5. To denote future actions. a) With verbs of motion to arrive, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to sail, to start and some others, usually the actions are only intended or planned. The future time is usually indicated by some adverbials: She is leaving tomorrow. The boat is sailing next week. He is returning on Monday. What are you doing tomorrow? Though the present continuous of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote an intention or plan, with some verbs the meaning is that of apprehention or presentiment. He’s going to get ill. The flowers are going to wither. It is going to snow. He’s going to be hanged. b) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless, etc: I’ll ring you up at 2, while you are having your break. If he is working when I come, don’t bother him, I’ll wait. As follows from the items enumerated above, the present continuous cannot occur in the context describing a succession of actions referring to the present. In such cases the present indefinite is used: He comes up to the piano, opens the lid, and begins to play the first tune. If several actions in a narrative have the form of the present continuous, it indicates that they are all simultaneous (and usually performed by different persons): The boys are playing football on the lawn, Nell is reading in her room, and Father is having his rest. In all its uses the present continuous is rendered in Russian by means of the present tense of the imperfective aspect.
The present perfect § 23. Meaning. The present perfect form denotes the action preceding the moment of speaking, though it is connected with it either directly or indirectly, that is: a) it continues up to the moment of speaking or b) takes place within a period of time before and including the moment of speaking, so it is relevant to the moment of speaking through its effect or virtually through its continuation at the moment of speaking. In the first case it is called the exclusive present perfect (the moment of speaking is excluded), in the second - the inclusive present perfect (the moment of speaking is included). Formation. The present perfect is formed analytically, by means of the auxiliary to have in the present indefinite and participle II of the notional verb.* * For the rules of the formation of participle II see § 5-6.
In the negative the corresponding negative forms of to have are used, participle II follows them.
The paradigm of the verb in the present perfect
Negative-interrogative
§ 24. In all its uses the present perfect directly or indirectly refers actions to the moment of speaking. This connection with the moment of speaking predetermines its use; the present perfect is found in conversations and communications dealing with the state of things in the present and is never found in narratives referring to the past.
The present perfect is used: 1. When the speaker means that he is interested in the mere fact that the action took place, but not in the time when it took place, nor in the circumstances. The time of the action is either not indicated at all, or is indicated only vaguely, by means of adverbs of indefinite time (yet, already, just, lately, recently, of late, ever, never, always, etc.). I don’t know what he’s going to do, I haven’t seen him. Has Mother returned? I haven’t read the letter yet. Why are you so hard on him? What has he done? Let’s go, it has already stopped raining. I’ve never seen him in this play. 2. When the speaker means that, though the action is over, the period of time within which it was performed is not yet over at the moment of speaking (with the words today, this week, this year, etc.). I’ve seen her today. She’s returned from England this week. I’ve had a splitting headache this morning. If the period of time is over or the action refers to some particular moment of time within that period the past indefinite, not the present perfect is used. I had a bad headache this morning (said in the afternoon, in the evening, etc.). She was at my party this month (at the time when the party was given). In such cases (items 1 and 2) the exclusive present perfect is rendered in Russian by the past tense. 3. The present perfect is also used to denote actions still in progress, (the inclusive present perfect) which began before the moment of speaking and go on up to that moment or into it. In this case either the starting point of the action is specified (by means of the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since, or an adverbial clause with the conjunction since), or the period during which it continued (by various adverbs or phrases with for). It is thus used in the following cases: a) with statal verbs which do not normally take continuous forms: We met by chance last year, and I haven’t seen her since. I’ve been here since 8. I love you. I’ve loved you ever since we met. I’ve known you all my life. I haven’t seen you for ages. b) with some actional (durative) verbs in which case the present perfect continuous is also possible. The difference between the two forms lies in the following: in the case of the present perfect the logical stress is laid rather on the fact than on the process, whereas in the case of the present perfect continuous it is the process that is important. I’ve worked here since 1960. He has played football for five years already. In such cases the inclusive present perfect is rendered in Russian by the present tense. 4. The present perfect is also used in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the corresponding conjunctions to denote a future action taking place before a certain moment in the future. I’ll stay with you until you’ve finished everything. Wait till I’ve written the notice. Sometimes adverbials of place and objects expressed by words describing situations may serve in an oblique way as past time markers, connecting the activities not only with places and situations, but also with the time when the actions took place, accordingly the past indefinite is used. Did you meet him in London? (when you were in London) Did you like his singing? (when he sang) The same is true of special questions beginning with where: Where did you see him? Where did you buy this hat?
Although the time of the actions denoted by the present perfect is not specified, it is generally understood as more or less recent, not long past. § 25. The ways of translating the present perfect into Russian vary due to the peculiarities of its time orientation and the vagueness of its aspective meaning. It can therefore be translated into Russian either by the past tense (if it is exclusive present perfect) or by the present tense (if it is inclusive present perfect). The latter applies to statal verbs and some actional durative verbs.
The present perfect continuous § 26. Formation. The present perfect continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to be in the present perfect (have/has been) plus participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the first auxiliary (have/has) comes before the subject, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of the first auxiliary (have) are used, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow them. The paradigm of the verb in the present perfect continuous
Negative-interrogative
The present perfect continuous is used mainly in conversation.
§ 27. The present perfect continuous is used with actional verbs to denote: 1. Actions in progress which begin at a certain moment in the past and continue into the present. In this case either the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is usually specified. I’ve been writing since morning, and so I’ll soon stop. They’ve been living here since 1970. Now they are going to move to N. It has been raining ever since midnight, and it is still drizzling. She’s a fourth year student, so she’s been learning English for at least 3 years already. All these forms denoting actions continuing into the present (the so-called present perfect continuous inclusive) are translated into Russian by the present tense, imperfective (in the sentences above: ïèøó, æèâóò, äîæäü èäåò, ó÷èò). 2. Actions in progress which begin in the past and continue up to the moment of speaking or till just before it. It is the present perfect continuous exclusive. Oh, here you are at last! I’ve been waiting for you all day! It has been snowing since morning, but now it has stopped. You look so sad. Have you been crying? It has been raining for at least two hours, but now the wind has driven the clouds away. 3. Actions in progress that both begin and end at some indeterminate time before the moment of speaking, though connected with it through their importance for the present. My brother has been using my bicycle and has got the tyre punctured. I have been thinking over your offer, but still can’t tell you anything definite. I hear she has been calling on you again? The forms denoting actions that are over by the moment of speaking (the so-called present perfect continuous exclusive) are translated into Russian by means of the past tense, imperfective (in the sentences in items 2 and 3 they are: æäàë, ñíåã øåë, ïëàêàëà, äîæäü øåë, êàòàëñÿ, îáäóìûâàë, ïðèõîäèëà). 4. Future actions in progress before a certain moment in the future (in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition). He will get accustomed to the surroundings after he has been staying here for a week or two.
§ 28. As is seen from above, the present perfect continuous cannot be used to denote a succession of actions and therefore cannot be used to describe the development of events. If two actions denoted by the present perfect continuous happen to come together it only means that they are simultaneous and are usually performed by two different persons: I have been living here for two months while they have been travelling all over Europe. Now they are coming back, and I’ll soon move back to my own place.
Date: 2015-04-20; view: 1136
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