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Metaphor

Since classical times writers have argued that the use of metaphor enhances credibility—presumably by reflecting the speaker's intelligence as well as by entertaining and pleasing the audience. In fact, Aristotle described a command of metaphor as "the mark of genius." Metaphor has been defined as "language that implies a relationship, of which similarity is a significant feature, between two things and so changes our apprehension of either or both" (Deutsch, 1957, p. 73; italics added). Metaphors differ from analogies, which we have already discussed; in an analogy the comparison is partial ("Education is like a slingshot" and "Dumping industrial wastes into the environment is like adding a spoonful of dirt to each of your meals"), whereas in a metaphor two different things are said to be equivalent ("Education is a slingshot").

Theorists concerned with persuasion have long wondered whether there is any significant difference between a message that is literal and straightforward in its arguments and one that makes use of metaphor. Suppose, for example, that a speaker argues against government aid to needy students. Would she be better off saving "In education governmental help is not compatible with our national goals," or would the listeners be more inclined to agree with the argument if the speaker used a bold metaphor such as "Governmental help is the kiss of death"?

As is true for many other message variables, research findings suggest that the answer to our question is more interesting and complex than we might expect. Bowers and Osborn (1966) find that in persuasive speeches metaphorical conclusions are more effective than literal conclusions in fostering the desired attitude change. They also report, however, that certain types of metaphor seem to have greater persuasive power than others. Thus a speech on protective tariffs using an extended sexual metaphor ("the rape of Western economies," "we have prostituted our own interests to satisfy the lust of these special interest groups," and so on) proved more effective than an extended death metaphor ("this gentle murder of our values," "the sickening death-rattle in the throat of America," and so on) used in the speech on government aid mentioned above. This study examines the practice of using metaphors at the end of the persuasive speech. Given the frequency of this practice, there is certainly justification for such research. But before we can make a definitive statement about the relationship between attitude change and the widespread use of metaphoric language, researchers will have to explore other kinds and uses of metaphor.

Intensity

Although metaphor is sometimes considered an aspect of intensity, message intensity is also reflected in a speaker's choice of high- and low-intensity words. In Table 10.2 we see a comparison of high- and low-intensity modifiers and verbs used in a study by McEwen and Greenberg (1970). Their research, which is a comparison of high- and low-intensity messages on the same subject, indicates that audiences regard more highly intense messages as clearer and also more logical. In fact, audiences regard the sources of those messages as more trustworthy, dynamic, and competent. The researchers suggest that high-intensity messages may be more persuasive because they provide "a greater impetus to adopt the message-advocated position" (p. 341). According to an earlier study, however, language that is highly intense or emotional has a boomerang effect if the audience's initial attitude is discrepant with that of the speaker (Bowers, 1963). For example, when speaking in favor of the Equal Rights Amendment, a radical feminist would be less likely to persuade a group of women initially opposed to the bill if her language was highly emotional than she would if she used words of lesser intensity.



In his speech to a national educator's group, Benjamin Alexander (1989) used moderately intense language, as you can see:

When Dr. Nyangoni called and asked me to speak on the topic, "Reflections on Education and Our Society," she states, "you will be addressing the largest professional educational association in the world."

Once upon a time ... I like that expression— so let me say it again. Once upon a time, we passed out homework in our schools . . . and not condoms, and it was not "Teacher Training and Driver Education." It was "Teacher Education and Driver Training." We trained our drivers but we educated our teacher.

We did not have courses like "Physics without mathematics," "Chemistry made easy," and "Mathematics without fractions." Yes, once upon a time — we did not coddle students by passing them when they should have been held back. (p. 563)

McCroskey proposes that language that is highly intense will magnify "the perceived discrepancy of a communicator's message." He goes on to say, "Increasing perceived discrepancy tends to enhance the effectiveness of an initially high-credibility source but reduce even further the effectiveness of an initially low-credibility source" (McCroskey, 1978, p. 203). In other words, a dynamic, emotional presentation by a speaker perceived as a high-credibility source is going to be more effective than the same presentation by a speaker perceived as being low in credibility. Recall the discussion of word power in Chaper 4. It's very likely that when Ossie Davis says in a speech that English is "my goddamn enemy," he is going to be more persuasive than a speaker who is less well known and less highly regarded and who uses comparable language.

Transitions

It is possible to discuss transitions from the standpoint of either organization or style, for a transition is the verbal bridge between two parts of a speech. Transitions are more easily developed if the points in a speech flow somewhat logically from one to another. In the speech about the planets in our solar system, the transitions were made quite easily. "Beginning with the planet nearest the sun we find Mercury," the speaker began. For the transition to the next point, he said, "Continuing our journey away from the sun we find Venus." He continued, using the analogy of a journey as a vehicle for devising smooth transitions. To avoid repeating himself, he used some variation in each transition. He said, "The third planet we encounter is Earth," Then, "As we leave the blue and green planet, we set out for the red planet, Mars." In this speech, spatial organization made the movement from one point to the next seem logical and easy to follow. There are any number of ways of smoothly relating two concepts to each other. In discussing leadership, a speaker might move from one part of speech to another by saying, "Let us turn from the leadership of yesterday to my second concern, the leadership of tomorrow." Effective transitions add more than finishing touches to a speech. They clarify the speaker's train of thought for the listener, they help give the speech unity and coherence, and sometimes they help make the argument seem well reasoned.

Economy of Language

Those long-winded birds. They're all the same. The less they have to say, the longer it takes them to say it. (Harry S Truman on politicians; quoted in Miller, 1973, p. 177)

Signal-to-noise ratio, the relationship between the essential and extraneous information contained in any message, is a measure of interference. A concept that can be applied to all contexts of communication, it seems particularly relevant to any discussion of public speaking. Let us say at the outset that a certain amount of repetition, or redundancy, is necessary in most communication. This is certainly the case in public communication, where members of the audience have little chance to ask a speaker for clarification—at least before the question-and-answer period that may follow. A limited amount of redundancy ensures that the speaker's main points will not be misinterpreted. Nonetheless, there is little need to hammer the point home over and over again. We all know what torture it can be to sit through a public address by a long-winded speaker.

The speaker who is concise has the gift of selection. By omitting what is unnecessary and repetitious, he or she makes every word count. Economy in the use of language is a distinct stylistic advantage. Perhaps this is what one of President "Franklin Roosevelt's close associates was driving at when early in Eleanor Roosevelt's public speaking career he gave her this terse bit of advice: "If you have something to say, say it, and then sit down."


Date: 2015-02-16; view: 869


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