History

"The Ottoman state rose to become a world empire, which lasted from the late 13th century to 1923. Like that of the Habsburgs, its eventual rival, the Ottoman Empire was dynastic; its territories and character owed little to national, ethnic or religious boundaries, and were determined by the military and administrative power of the dynasty at any particular time. The Ottomans attempted to bring as much territory as possible into the Islamic fold. The non-Muslims living in these areas were then absorbed into the Empire as protected subjects."

Rome organized its extensive territory under a proconsul as the province of Asia. All of Anatolia (Asia Minor) except Armenia, which was a Roman client-state, was integrated into the imperial system by A.D. 43. After the accession of the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 B.C.-A.D. 14), and for generations thereafter, the Anatolian provinces enjoyed prosperity and security. The cities were administered by local councils and sent delegates to provincial assemblies that advised the Roman governors. Their inhabitants were citizens of a cosmopolitan world state, subject to a common legal system and sharing a common Roman identity. Roman in allegiance and Greek in culture, the region nonetheless retained its ethnic complexity.

In A.D. 285, the emperor Diocletian undertook the reorganization of the Roman Empire, dividing jurisdiction between its Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking halves. In 330 Diocletian's successor, Constantine, established his capital at the Greek city of Byzantium, a "New Rome" strategically situated on the European side of the Bosporus at its entrance to the Sea of Marmara. For nearly twelve centuries the city, embellished and renamed Constantinople, remained the capital of the Roman Empire--better known in its continuous development in the East as the Byzantine Empire.

Although Greek in language and culture, the Byzantine Empire was thoroughly Roman in its laws and administration. The emperor's Greek-speaking subjects, conscious of their imperial vocation, called themselves romaioi --Romans. Almost until the end of its long history, the Byzantine Empire was seen as ecumenical--intended to encompass all Christian people--rather tha The arrival of the first Christians (the word "Christian" was at first a term of abuse) made little impact on the world of Rome. They were looked on as merely another foreign sect, like the cults and mystery religions from Egypt and Persia. Slowly, however, their discipline and missionary zeal brought them to official notice. At last, when they had become powerful, official attempts were made to suppress them. Persecution was intermittent, and never widespread.

In Rome itself, Christians were imprisoned and tortured, or thrown into the arena to be devoured by lions. But persecution simply gave the sect even greater cohesion and powers of resistance - a fact not lost on Emperor Constantine. In 313 Constantine granted freedom of worship to all religions, and Christianity later became the state religion.

Before the end of the fourth century, a patriarchate was established in Constantinople with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over much of the Greek East. The basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), whose construction in Constantinople was ordered by Emperor Justinian in 532, became the spiritual focus of Greek Christendom.
Constantine made an immense contribution to the spread of Christianity, but he failed in one of his primary aims. He wanted to unite all Christians in one Church, but in fact he succeeded in splitting them.The Christians of the West claimed that the Pope in Rome was the leader of Christendom. Those in the East recognised the Patriarch of Constantinople as their leader. These two forms became the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Ortodox Church. The Byzantine emperors maintanied a large Christian empire covering much of Asia and North Africa until a new dynamic religious force apperaed in the East. This was the religious faith of Islam.

In the early seventh century, the emperor in Constantinople presided over a realm that included not only Greece and Anatolia but Syria, Egypt, Sicily, most of Italy, and the Balkans, with outposts across North Africa as far as Morocco. Anatolia was the most productive part of this extensive empire and was also the principal reservoir of manpower for its defense. With the loss of Syria to Muslim conquest in the seventh century, Anatolia became the frontier as well as the heartland of the empire. The military demands imposed on the Byzantine state to police its provinces and defend its frontiers were enormous, but despite the gradual contraction of the empire and frequent political unrest, Byzantine forces generally remained strong until the eleventh century.

The tide turned in the 9th century under dynasty of emperors which included Michael III (842-67), and later Basil's dynasty, which held the throne of Byzantium for the next two centuries. Basil's successors extended the empire's boundaries to the Euphrates, and made considerable inroads into Bulgaria.
The empire's revival continues under Basil II (976-1025), a man of strong will and courage , whose reign gave Byzantium a period of prosperity and expension as great as that enjoyed under Justinian. So succesful was his campaign agains the Bulgars in the Balkans that he became known as Basil the Bulgar-Slayer. When Basil died in 1025, the empire had reached a peak of success, though at the cost of overstraining its economy.

Byzan Church

Turkish Origins

From prehistoric times a constellation of people had been migrating throughout Central Asia in the area between Pamir and Yenissei, the Volga and the T'ien Shan Mountains. From this loose collection of people sprang communities speaking FinnoUgric, Turkish and Mongolian languages. Later, at the time of Christ's birth and mainly through Chinese sources, the first Prototurkic people in Western and Northwestern China are recorded. They were the ancestors of today's Turks. Neighbours of the Mongols and probably related to them, they were a nomadic equestrian people who were more mobile than the other people scattered across the Asian continent at the time

The first historical references to the Turks appear in Chinese records dating around 200 B.C. These records refer to tribes called the Hsiung-nu (an early form of the Western term Hun ), who lived in an area bounded by the Altai Mountains, Lake Baykal, and the northern edge of the Gobi Desert, and who are believed to have been the ancestors of the Turks (see fig. 3). Specific references in Chinese sources in the sixth century A.D. identify the tribal kingdom called Tu-Küe located on the Orkhon River south of Lake Baykal. The khans (chiefs) of this tribe accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Tang Dynasty. The earliest known example of writing in a Turkic language was found in that area and has been dated around A.D. 730.
Other Turkish nomads from the Altai region founded the Gokturk Empire, a confederation of tribes under a dynasty of khans whose influence extended during the sixth through eighth centuries from the Aral Sea to the Hindu Kush in the land bridge known as Transoxania (i.e., across the Oxus River .

The Gokturks are known to have been enlisted by a Byzantine emperor in the seventh century as allies against the Sassanians. In the eighth century, separate Turkish tribes, among them the Oguz, moved south of the Oxus River, while others migrated west to the northern shore of the Black Sea.

Date: 2015-02-03; view: 853